Global crises and their impact on Morocco’s socio-economic transformation in recent years
Prepared by the researcher : Abdelghani AMOUKLACH, Universitas Diponegogo (Indonesia)
Democratic Arabic Center
Journal of Political Science and Law : Thirty-Ninth Issue – March 2024
A Periodical International Journal published by the “Democratic Arab Center” Germany – Berlin
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Abstract
Perhaps the most distinctive and powerful feature of every society is its achievement of strength in the various aspects of policy, the economic and social pillars that make the achievement of complete autonomy and individuality by virtue of its decision, as well as the greatest measure of sustainable development that makes citizens parallel actors within their own country. Morocco’s goal, like the developing countries, was to achieve development gains that would ensure that it proceeded on the international front line and address any obstacles to its development process. This may be clear to political, economic and social tracers as a whole, despite the world’s enormous transformations, which call for rapid and effective intervention to close the gap in order to prevent a recession and macroeconomic inactivity at various levels.
The past decade has known a series of crises that have created a profound crunch that has deepened countries and their governments around the world. These crises, which swung between economic stagnation, natural disasters and global pandemics, have turned on Governments and created new challenges unprecedented or not as acute as the world has previously known. Moreover, it has been noted that these crises, pandemics and disasters have had long-term global economic and social impacts (Chip et al., 2023). Along with climate challenges, lack of natural resources, international conflicts and terrorism, the COVID-19 pandemic, which has crippled the world’s movement, has had the most devastating impact on global health and the economy (Huang et al., 2020). Since the beginning of the pandemic, the world has faced an unprecedented global health crisis linked to COVID-19 (Leonie et al., 2021). The world’s nations and Governments have committed themselves to taking swift measures and actions to deal with these crises, starting with the implementation of strict lockdown measures to stimulate economic recovery.[1]
Governments of large and developing States are concerned about the sustainability of promising development and the safe future. These are the main challenges and issues that have come to impose themselves on the international scene. Identifying key issues in global crises no longer depends solely on time and space, but on them being issues that appear frequently in many global crises and in various aspects affecting States’ main pillars at all levels:
At the natural level: lack of natural resources, particularly those related to energy and water, due to increasing pressure, climate change and natural disasters.
At the political level and international security: international conflicts and terrorism constitute a shadow of global security and constitute a stumbling block to an international consensus aimed at establishing a system of security and stability.
Demographic level: The rapid pace of demographic transition in recent times is one of the key issues where health challenges are recurring, especially with epidemics, poverty, growing needs and inequality, will exacerbate the situation and warn of the need for urgent strategic plans and international attention.
The multiplicity of these variables has a significant and absolute impact on the global economic level, which in turn undergoes radical transformations and poses a profound challenge to itself to complement that complex format, as it is essential to respond promptly, comprehensively and internationally to address those challenges and restore what can be restored because it is in fact a matter of serious concern about the sustainability of our future.
I will explain more about these global crises in the next part of the article.
Since the beginning of the last century, Moroccan society has been characterized in its various structures by the wide-ranging structural changes in the social, political, social, economic and environmental fabric imposed by the urgent need for such change, whether in line with the global trend and openness around the world or separation from the historical spheres or both. In both cases, aspects of this disruption must be identified, with the changes resulting from the global crises cited as the main theme I am putting forward through this paper.
The structural changes that have occurred in the environmental, social, demographic, and political fabric of Moroccan society in recent decades have encompassed transformations in various social relationships across different intersections. The demographic transition, in particular, has had a clear impact on the overall dynamics of Moroccan family structures, shifting from extended families to nuclear ones.
From the perspective of considering the political framework as a component of society, it was not immune to these changes. A portion of it is linked to the relationship between authority and its sphere of influence, whether involving the political elite, political parties, various actors as agents of change, or the monarchy as a stable institution.[2]
The global climate phenomenon, in turn, has undergone a profound change, shaking the natural, environmental, and human balances due to intensive human interventions and unfair exploitation of natural resources. Morocco is not exempt from this change, as it has experienced lean years and an unprecedented rise in temperature, impacting agricultural productivity and contributing to the long-term economic crisis.
Research hypotheses:
The Impact of Economic Crises on Moroccan Economic Stability.
The global economic crisis can lead to economic disruptions in Morocco.
Environmental crises, such as climate change, affect natural resources and the economy.
Environmental disasters can affect the economic stability of Morocco.
Government Policies and Crisis Response.
The Moroccan government addressed the economic crisis, with the policies it adopted to maintain social and economic stability.
Research Problem:
The global crises, whether economic, health-related, or political, pose significant challenges for many countries, requiring concerted efforts and the creation of a robust alliance to confront and mitigate their impact. Moreover, each country individually needs to build a resilient internal arsenal aimed at preserving the cohesion of its societal elements. Through this article, we seek to understand how these global crises impact socio-economic stability in Morocco, particularly within the context of complex international and regional interactions. The study aims to comprehend the challenges and opportunities that these crises may bring and how the Moroccan government can respond to these challenges to maintain societal stability.
Importance of the problem:
The primary importance that I address in this article is directly aimed at shedding light on the impact of the global crisis on the political-economic environment in Morocco and achieving a broader and comprehensive understanding of the challenges facing the Moroccan government in complex international interactions. I strive to simplify the recommendations and practical measures taken fundamentally for the general readership, showcasing Morocco’s ability to respond to the challenges imposed by the crisis. This includes refuting limited perspectives and arguments that undermine the efforts of various stakeholders in different fields, or at least enabling the reader to closely examine the roles that all actors, from political decision-makers to ordinary citizens, must undertake. The goal is to enhance a collaborative approach for all parties and societal segments in building a social alliance and fostering development that crystallizes and boosts citizen confidence and their ability to build and create development that responds to all aspirations, achieving significant gains amidst the world’s ongoing crises and challenges, both in the short and long term.
The titled article, “Global Crises and Their Impact on Morocco’s Socioeconomic Transformation,” serves as a starting point for research and a rationale for understanding and analyzing the effects of the global crisis on Moroccan politics and its economy. It directs special attention to the priorities the Moroccan government should focus on to address the political and economic implications of global crises. Additionally, it aims to provide a framework for research that opens avenues for in-depth studies on how global crises impact socio-economic stability. By identifying these objectives and significance, the research can play an effective role in drawing attention to the relationship between global crises and political stability in Morocco, and perhaps contribute valuable insights to political planning and decision-making by policymakers.
Morocco’s economic fabric and features.
“Morocco Before the Crisis: A Promising Socioeconomic Trajectory.”
The Moroccan economy has undergone significant transformations in recent years, attributing its success to the momentum gained from a series of adopted reforms. The diversification of the Moroccan national economic structure has gradually shifted towards vital sectors, notably the service sector, which has become an attractive element for foreign direct investments. It also plays a crucial role in foreign trade, partially compensating for any structural deterioration affecting the trade balance.[3]
The benefits of this economic shift have been evident in the domestic market, injecting new dynamics supported by household consumption growth and investment efforts from both the public and private sectors. This is evident in the notable increase in the investment rate over the past years, reaching 30 percent of the gross domestic product[4]. The service sector stands out as one of the key sectors in the Moroccan economy, employing a significant portion of the active population. Moreover, it makes a substantial contribution to the overall gross domestic product, experiencing significant growth and creating over 164,000 job opportunities in the past year alone[5]. This sector encompasses various fields, including trade, administrative services, support services, storage, transportation.
Similar to the service sector, the industrial sector in the Moroccan economy has witnessed a qualitative leap, marked by leadership in the Arab Maghreb region. The industrial field has experienced significant development in recent years, particularly in the areas of renewable energy, aviation, pharmaceuticals, and mining, with renewable energy and mining claiming the lion’s share. Following closely is the food industry, considered the largest due to Morocco’s moderate climate, fertile land, and abundant resources.[6]and the industry contributes to 26 percent of the gross domestic product, with the mining industry playing a crucial role in the national economy. It stands as the second-largest producer and exporter of phosphates globally, possessing around 75 percent of the estimated world reserves[7]. These achievements have propelled Morocco to look forward to promising horizons and envision a different perspective for economic development by the year 2030.
“The Primary Industrial Sectors in Morocco and the Vision 2030: Promising Perspectives”
“This was the title of the forward-looking vision for the industrial sector, where a strategic plan and a new industrial policy were devised with the aim of increasing the contribution of this vital sector to the GDP from 14 percent in 2022 to 23 percent by the end of that year. The plan also aimed to create 500,000 job opportunities and invest approximately AUD 54 billion in projects dedicated to the development of the renewable energy sector. The aviation industry held significant importance in this reform workshop[8], being the focus of attention for major global companies in the sector, injecting new liquidity into the state budget.
Morocco possesses a considerable share of metallic minerals, with phosphate being the leading material among others. This source of revenue significantly enriches the state’s treasury, allowing for a transition to a new phase of investment and support for projects and individual enterprises. The goal is to achieve sustainable development with a prominent focus on realizing societal dynamics and sustainable development for the benefit of all citizens.” also dominates the Moroccan economy, making a prominent contribution to its revitalization and mitigating the severity of the crises it faces, is the agricultural sector. This is due to the fertility of its lands and its vast plains, which constitute a large area suitable for agriculture, encompassing approximately 8.7 million hectares. This diversity allows for the production of various crops such as grains, cotton, legumes, green vegetables, fruits, in addition to the output of the livestock sector, including sheep, cattle, poultry, milk production, and other components. This sector achieves self-sufficiency and intersects with the industrial field in areas like packaging, extending beyond to export to global markets, thereby improving the country’s trade balance.
All of this prompted the Moroccan government in April 2008 to adopt a new vision focused on prioritizing agriculture in the coming decade. The goal is to drive the overall economic wheel, combat poverty, preserve a large portion of the rural population, and improve their living conditions through the “Green Morocco Plan” program.[9]
The diversity of economic sectors in Morocco and their richness have led the Moroccan political system to adopt a set of measures and plans aimed at achieving growth, development, stability, and overall solidarity in Morocco under the umbrella of economic policy.
As a whole, economic policy is based on the principles of social and market economy, considering the balance between the public and private sectors. It encourages investment, innovation, competitiveness, as well as regional and international integration.[10] Based on these principles, it was essential for the Moroccan government to consider this system in order to overcome any potential challenges the country may face due to past or future crises. Consequently, it is imperative for the government to strive towards achieving added value, increasing and enhancing production in the aforementioned sectors to sustain their vitality. Notably, this applies to the agriculture, tourism, and services sectors, upon which the Moroccan citizens rely.[11] This is in addition to diversifying and supporting the economy through harnessing renewable energies and enhancing social protection, solidarity, mutual support, equality, and human development. All of this is intended to contribute to achieving financial and monetary stability, reducing indebtedness, and consequently addressing the trade balance deficit and resisting inflation.[12]
I have previously mentioned that the government, to operationalize this, has adopted a range of domestic and foreign projects over the past two decades. This includes the signing of various free trade agreements with most major economies such as the United States, the European Union, North African countries, and others.[13]
At the domestic level, the government has adopted the “Green Morocco Plan” in the field of agriculture, as well as the “Blue Plan: Morocco Export and Morocco Logistics,” along with the ” departure Plan in the Industrial Sector.”[14]
The question that arises within the context of this diversity that Morocco is rich in, and within this arsenal that foretells comprehensive development rivaling major economies: Has Morocco truly achieved economic takeoff during the past decade? What are the challenges facing these sectors? To what extent has it been affected by the successive crises that the world has experienced?
These questions and others will be addressed and analyzed in the subsequent paragraphs of this article.
“The global crisis: Its impact on the economies of developing countries – Morocco – Any prospects?”
Continuing from what was mentioned at the beginning of this article, the current global crisis has deeply unsettled governments worldwide due to its sudden and unexpected severity. It has left these governments puzzled about the effective ways to overcome it, especially those holding a prominent position in the global economy. Despite the formulated plans, strategies, and financial support for financial systems, progress has been slow, as economic actors are plagued by uncertainty and fear about the future. The prospects for overcoming the crisis are shrouded in mystery, skepticism, and a lack of confidence. This situation has contributed to reshaping the economic landscape of world countries, leading them to explore alternative solutions that address the multiple wounds and aspects of this crisis, relying on available resources to avoid falling into an economic downturn with no clear way out.
Our starting point in this paragraph will be the first and second hypotheses. so, Morocco, like any other country on the growth path, is intricately linked to international trade, especially with the European Union and the United States. The Economic Observatory for Morocco anticipates a deterioration in the external financial deficit, a decline in revenues, an increase in expenditures, and consequently, a rise in the debt ratio.[15] So, has been affected socioeconomically by the shifts in the global economy. This is negatively reflected across various aspects, including the economic slowdown and an increase in unemployment rates, leading to a reduction in production and creating an adverse impact on the living standards at different levels:
The service sector: This vital sector faced a wave of challenges over the past years, leading to a noticeable decline that continues until the present time. The COVID-19 pandemic played a major role in its deterioration, as trade exchanges came to a halt. Additionally, the Russo-Ukrainian war and a series of crises contributed to a significant reduction in demand for various services, particularly in the tourism, transportation, and trade sectors. so, the sector has struggled to correct its course and confront these challenges, resulting in substantial losses.
The Agricultural Sector: The Climate change, that the observed worldwide in recent years, along with successive years of drought, is among the main concerns of experts and policymakers in various governments globally. Morocco is not immune to the climatic changes, environmental phenomena, and disasters threatening the future of sustainable development. These factors increase the risks to human health, exert pressure on natural resources, and result in unsustainable exploitation. The agricultural sector in Morocco is grappling with a host of problems and challenges that undermine its effectiveness in achieving economic prosperity, especially considering its significant contribution to the country’s economy. Statistical studies on climate changes in Morocco indicate a tangible impact on natural resources over recent decades, particularly in terms of water scarcity and depletion due to population growth, industrial development, and economic expansion.[16] On the one hand, the increase in urbanization at the expense of arable land, and on the other hand, these changes have affected the agricultural sector, leading to a decline in major crop yields and agricultural production volatility. This change will likely result in the presence of impoverished or non-existent crops in many regions of Morocco, where there is insufficient irrigation to mitigate the impact of adverse climatic conditions.[17] Thus, we are discussing a very challenging situation for the sector.
In the context of economic impact, environmental crises may lead to inefficient resource allocation and reduced productivity in heavily affected sectors, contributing to a decrease in national income and an increase in poverty levels. Simultaneously, the impact on natural resources may result in environmental degradation and negative repercussions on environmental sustainability.
“What solutions and political measures have the Moroccan government employed to alleviate the impact of the crisis?
Government policies and response to the crisis.”
In the face of economic crises and the formation of a world seeking new models for sustainable and more open development, governments and their institutions are considered key entities responsible for taking necessary measures to address challenges and maintain socio-economic stability. In light of this, and based on the hypothetical proposition, this paragraph will review some of the measures taken by the Moroccan government to confront various crises in order to achieve the goals of resilient and promising economic development and their potential impact on political stability in Morocco.
Despite the severity of global economic crises, the Moroccan government is making diligent efforts through urgent plans and programs to implement economic policies aimed at dealing with and mitigating these crises.
Perhaps investment is the optimal means for Morocco to confront future crises, within an approach economists refer to as an anti-cyclical approach. This approach implies that policies of austerity are not enacted during times of crisis, especially concerning investment. Instead, there is an increase in public investment efforts. This approach is not just an expression of confidence in the future, but a strong belief in the ability of Morocco and Moroccans to overcome challenges with determination, strength, and foresight. “In this context, and as a response to the crisis, the government, under royal directives, has turned towards various possible alternatives, attempting to reduce dependence on countries with advanced economies. On the energy front, the government has accelerated the transition towards alternative energy sources, including renewable energy, green hydrogen, and nuclear energy, aiming to achieve long-term energy self-sufficiency.”[18]
“At the level of the service sector, the goals of the development model focused primarily on administrative reform and attention to public administration. This involved enhancing efficiency, simplifying procedures, and embracing digitization and its development. Additionally, there was a commitment to improving the healthcare sector to achieve comprehensive fairness in the provision of medical services and expanding health coverage to encompass the entire population, especially in the non-structured sector. Furthermore, within this development model, employment was addressed comprehensively through reforms, including the creation and diversification of competitiveness in the job market, the promotion of self-employment, and support for small enterprises with the provision of financial assistance.”
“To confront the repercussions of the severe drought experienced by the country, the government implemented an exceptional program to mitigate the effects of drought, with a value of 10 billion dirhams (approximately 1.2 billion dollars). This program includes the restructuring of farmers’ debts and support for adversely affected agricultural activities[19]. Additionally, an extra allocation of 15 billion dirhams (about 1.4 billion dollars) was earmarked to support the Compensation Fund [Social Support Fund] and enhance the purchasing power of citizens in the face of the significant rise in prices, especially for fuel and the subsequent unprecedented price hikes.”
“The reform program also had a forward-looking vision on the international level, aiming to increase investment in emerging sectors and enhance economic cooperation with other countries, particularly in various service sectors such as tourism and technology. On the other hand, the government focuses on promoting transparency and community participation through a participatory monitoring framework to clarify the policies and measures taken. This fosters trust between citizens and the government, achieved through launching media campaigns and organizing open dialogue sessions.”
Summary, conclusion and recommendations
Under the umbrella of these comprehensive reforms that have permeated the pillars of the Moroccan economy, questions arise, and while their formulations may differ, their essence remains consistent:
Have these reforms been implemented in reality?
Do these reforms prove effective in the long run?
Have the aspirations for sustainable development, championed by the Moroccan government, been realized?”
“The observer of the economic situation in Morocco, regardless of being a simple citizen, a farmer, an educated individual, or illiterate, without delving into the complexities of economic and political theories, will undoubtedly recognize the severe predicament characterized by profound darkness and a blocked horizon. The Moroccan government, its politicians, and its economic and social theorists appear to be floundering haphazardly amidst a whirlwind of successive crises. Following the pandemic crisis and its catastrophic aftermath on societal conditions, also the Russian-Ukrainian war did not provide an opportunity for the fledgling economy of this country to heal its wounds. Instead, the greater disaster unfolded with the government’s decisions and policies, ostensibly aiming to reassure Moroccans through superficially profound and radical reforms promising a prosperous economy and a near-future with a bright outlook. Such a future was expected to guarantee a comfortable living and strengthen the components of society. However, the harsh reality diverges significantly from this description. The Moroccan economy has become more fragile than ever before and has been unable to take a step that instills hope for a productive or at least flourishing economy, especially considering the increase in prices for essential goods. This has burdened the souls beyond their capacity, leaving them grappling with the harsh reality of soaring costs. According to statistics provided by the Economic Observatory of Morocco issued by the World Bank, the poverty index in Morocco was 4.8 in 2021, increasing to 5.1 in 2022 and reaching 5.4 in 2023.[20]” “This indicates that the poverty index is on an upward trajectory. Additionally, the high and accumulating debt is noteworthy. By June 2023, the external debt ratio reached its peak, increasing by an amount of {+125 million dollars}. After initially being capped at around 60%, the debt amount reached 71%, according to parliamentary deputy Al-Azmi Al-Idrisi [21]during the current government’s term. This serves as a harbinger of past lean years, an ominous sign for the future, and a glaring failure of reforms, their non-implementation, resorting to a policy of deception and evasion, and the prevalence of political and administrative corruption.
Subsequently, the Moroccan citizen loses confidence in the government, its parliamentary representatives, and their decisions. These decisions, once implemented, often tilt the socio-economic balance in favor of serving the interests of the wealthy government representatives. Businessman and member of the development model committee, Karim Tazi, articulated this sentiment by stating, ‘Several sectors suffer from monopolies that guarantee comfortable profits, outside of free competition, as well as the dilemma of combining wealth and power. This is sufficient to hinder the growth of any economy worldwide.’
Moroccan economics and politics seem to be in a golden spoon, completely subservient to the decisions and recommendations of the World Bank. The current unrest in the country since the end of 2023 and the beginning of 2024, marked by acute tensions and successive strikes in vital sectors such as education and health, may be a prelude to a popular mobilization that could bring back scenarios reminiscent of the Arab Spring, with even greater intensity and in a manner that words may not suffice to describe.”
“The multitude of factors and reasons we have exemplified, not exhaustively, whether at the level of domestic or foreign policy, stand as impediments to the realization of the reformist and sustainable development policies that have continually been slogans for successive governments under the dome of the Moroccan parliament. This institution has become a means for illegitimate enrichment, following the same path that calls for expediting the implementation of the reforms brought forth to overcome these tensions and to possess a genuine vision of the crisis, even if its outlines are unmistakable.
Linking responsibility to accountability is a focal point that must be strongly emphasized to prevent the squandering of public funds, and a serious and rigorous commitment to implementing developmental projects instead of patchwork solutions. First and foremost, relying on competencies and experts in various political, economic, and social fields is essential, as is establishing a communication channel between citizens’ representatives within the parliament and empowering them. On the other hand, promoting political participation of youth, considered the axis of these reforms, and adopting a participatory approach for the benefit of the entire citizenry. Renewing commitments and fully leveraging the country’s rich heritage position it among advanced nations.”
“As for the external domain, the common denominator of these key factors is the call for activating integration and revitalizing the institutions of the Maghreb Union among the Arab Maghreb countries. This aligns with the era of regional blocs and necessitates charting a roadmap as a necessity to stay focused on achieving comprehensive economic unity among these nations. It requires clear vision, strategy, and the removal of obstacles to contribute to economic policies adopted in each Maghreb country that encourages the formation of groupings and blocs. These policies should be in harmony with integration, collaboration, and participation.
Establishing a free trade area among the Arab Maghreb countries is seen as a step forward on the path to achieving the desired economic integration among these nations, especially given the role that international trade relations play today in bringing countries closer together and contributing to the establishment of regional blocs to face current international economic challenges.
Therefore, the impact of these measures on socio-economic stability in Morocco depends on the effectiveness and implementation of these policies, as well as the local community’s response to them. If the government succeeds in improving the economic situation, it may increase the chances of political stability. However, if these efforts fail, economic deterioration may lead to an escalation of social and political tensions. Consequently, what we have concluded about the resurgence of the Arab Spring could be the headline for episodes of a real horror series that the Arab world may witness in the near future.”
References:
Articles
- Al-Azmi Idrisi Finance and Relations Officer, Ministry of Economics and Finance {Press Symposium}
- Aoubouazza M. « Profil du risque de changement climatique MAROC » l’USAID 2016,
- Badraoui M, Riad B. « L’adaptation de l’agriculture marocaine au changement climatique » Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung V 2012
- Book {Morocco in the face of the global financial crisis, public policy bets and trends} _ Morocco before the crisis, a promising socio-economic path page 11
- Book of social, cultural and political transformations in Morocco First edition. December 2022. Publications of Friedrich Ebert
- Economic Observatory for Morocco: biannual report from the World Bank Economic Group “Economic and political developments of the country June 2020
- Grenada from Society Generale-Trade paragraph 13 March 2016 on the Wayback Machine.the same website.
- Investor’s Guide to the Agricultural Sector of Morocco [Green Morocco Scheme]
- Jamal shasheen Shaib, Maaisa Mohammed Bisharat, Sakr 2023
- MOROCCAN MARKET: MAIN SECTORS”, import-export.societegenerale.fr.
- Report of the High Commission for planning {services sector in the forefront of the updated sectors for the year 2022}
Webographie
- moroccoembassy.org.au ,.
- https://www.majalla.com/node/285696
- World Bank Report January 12, 2022, https://www.albankaldawli.org
- https://ar.m.wikipedia.org/wiki
- https://web.archive.org/web/20170714000043/
- https://www.aljazeera.net/ebusiness/2022/10/7.
- https://www.maroc7.ma/2023/10/25
- https://data.albankaldawli.org/indicator/SI.POV.NAHC?locations=MA
[1] Jamal shasheen Shaib, Maaisa Mohammed Bisharat, Sakr 2023 edited.
[2] Book of social, cultural, and political transformations in Morocco First edition. December 2022. p6 Publications of Friedrich Ebert nadacom desing.
[3] Book {Morocco in the face of the global financial crisis, public policy bets and trends} _ Morocco before the crisis, a promising socio-economic path page 11
[4] The same source
[5] Report of the High Commission for planning {services sector in the forefront of the updated sectors for the year 2022}
[6] MAIN INDUSTRIES”, www.moroccoembassy.org.au, Retrieved 17-11-2020. Edited.
[7] “MOROCCAN MARKET: MAIN SECTORS”, import-export.societegenerale.fr. edited.
[8] MAIN INDUSTRIES”, www.moroccoembassy.org.au , Retrieved 17-1-2020. edited.
[9] Investor’s Guide to the Agricultural Sector of Morocco [Green Morocco Scheme] Archived from Original 14-06-2020.
[10] https://www.majalla.com/node/285696
[11] World Bank Report January 12, 2022, https://www.albankaldawli.org
[12] https://ar.m.wikipedia.org/wiki
[13] https://web.archive.org/web/20170714000043/ http://www.huffpostmaghreb.com/echkoundi-mhammed/
[14] Grenada from Society Generale-Trade paragraph 13 March 2016 on the Wayback Machine.the same website.
[15] Economic Observatory for Morocco: biannual report from the World Bank Economic Group “Economic and political developments of the country June 2020
[16] Aoubouazza M. « Profil du risque de changement climatique MAROC » l’USAID 2016, p 02.
[17] Badraoui M, Riad B. « L’adaptation de l’agriculture marocaine au changement climatique » Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung e.V 2012, p 61
[18] The same site web.
[19] Journalist Sana al-howaiti Article: Drought and rising prices globally. How the Moroccan Government dealt with the economic crises 07-10-2022 https://www.aljazeera.net/ebusiness/2022/10/7.
[20] World Bank’s Economic Observatory for Morocco https://www.maroc7.ma/2023/10/25
https://data.albankaldawli.org/indicator/SI.POV.NAHC?locations=MA
[21] Al-Azmi Idrisi Finance and Relations Officer, Ministry of Economics and Finance {Press Symposium}
