The importance of islamic diplomacy in international Relations of the Modern world: Prophet Muhammad (SAW), As a model

Prepared by the researche : Elhadji Abdoulaye Mbaye, Phd student, Dept of political science, islamic university of Minnesota -senegal branch.

DAC Democratic Arabic Center GmbH

Journal of Constitutional Law and Administrative Sciences : Twenty-ninth Issue – November 2025

A Periodical International Journal published by the “Democratic Arab Center” Germany – Berlin

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Abstract

According to Islamic teachings, the human being is a highly respectable and honorable creature.

Islam unites all human beings through the concept of universal brotherhood.

It teaches that mankind deserves respect, love, and sympathy in order to foster coexistence and mutual understanding among people of different nations and backgrounds.

However, on certain occasions, Islam emphasizes the importance of maintaining a distinct identity and establishing boundaries in relationships with other religions, in order to preserve its uniqueness, legitimacy, universality, and comprehensiveness.

This paper aims to explore the principles of international relations derived from the Seerah (life) of the Holy Prophet (PBUH), particularly with regard to interactions with other communities.

We identify foundational elements based on the teachings of the Seerah and Islamic history.

In our view, Islam encourages interaction with other religions to promote harmony and reduce conflicts, but only within the framework of maintaining Islamic identity.

Dialogue and discussion are essential components of this approach, and numerous examples can be found in both the Makkan and Madinan periods of the Prophet’s life.

Through his diplomatic efforts, the Holy Prophet (PBUH) spread the message of Islam from Arabia to neighboring and distant regions of the world.

The importance of islamic diplomacy in international Relations of  the  Modern world : Prophet Muhammad (SAW), As a model

Introduction

According to the oldest ways of solving disputes among human beings peacefully has been the diplomatic negociations.

Nowadays most of the nations worldwide use this method to ease strained relations,reduce,hostility,and establish economical and political relations,as well as halting armed combats,and consolidating peace.

Diplomatic interaction,being a universal bequest of antiquity was practiced in islam right from the periods of prophet Muhammad (SAW) ; The first four caliphs ; the Umayyad Dynasty ; the Abbasid empire ; down to the Ottoman Empire,but diplomacy is one of the most practical and dynamic topics of international relations ; therefore, the religion of islam since its beginning , has recognized this logical approach as one of the most important ways actually for conducting international affairs through ambassadors, and envoys who use peaceful means.

The prophet (SAW) of islam, with respect to existing traditions and Quranic teachings , signed diplomatic negociations in ties with Arabian tribes and other states.

The prophet SAW implemented this method by delegating ambassadors or representatives to diffrent countries.

Prophet Muhammad’s conducts were actually reflection of all the islamic principles like justice, tolerance, truthfulness and fair play to all peoples.

Diplomacy in islam.

       Diplomacy in Islam represents a comprehensive system of international relations and conflict resolution grounded in Islamic principles and historical practices. Unlike conventional diplomacy that often prioritizes national interest above all else, Islamic diplomacy emphasizes moral considerations, justice, and peaceful coexistence as fundamental objectives. The concept encompasses a wide range of practices including negotiation, treaty-making, envoy exchange, and conflict mediation, all guided by principles derived from the Quran and the example of Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him)[1].

Islamic diplomacy has played a crucial role throughout Muslim history, from the early Islamic period to the various caliphates and sultanates that governed vast territories across continents. The significance of diplomacy in Islam extends beyond mere political expediency—it is considered a religious obligation in many circumstances, especially when it serves to prevent bloodshed, protect Muslim interests, and promote harmonious relations between states. The modern discipline of international relations has increasingly recognized the sophistication and effectiveness of traditional Islamic diplomatic practices, which maintained balance of power and facilitated cultural exchange across diverse regions for centuries.[2]

The study of Islamic diplomacy offers valuable insights for contemporary international relations, particularly in conflict resolution and intercultural dialogue. As the Muslim world engages with modern diplomatic institutions and frameworks, there is renewed interest in rediscovering and adapting these traditional principles to address current challenges. This comprehensive examination explores the theological foundations, historical development, key mechanisms, and modern applications of diplomacy within the Islamic tradition. [3]

Theological Foundations of Diplomacy in Islam

1 Quranic Principles Governing International Relations

The Quran serves as the primary source of guidance for diplomatic conduct in Islam, providing several key principles that regulate relations between Muslim and non-Muslim entities:

• Surah al-Mumtahina (Chapter 60) offers explicit instructions on diplomacy and negotiation with other nations, particularly emphasizing that “both friendship and enmity should be for the sake of Allah” rather than materialistic reasons . This chapter outlines the conditional nature of relationships with non-Muslim entities, permitting friendly relations only when the other party respects Muslim values and refrains from conspiracy against Muslims.[4]
• The concept of Aman (safe conduct) finds its basis in Quranic teachings, particularly Quran 9:6, which establishes guidelines for granting protection to foreigners in Islamic domains . This principle formed the foundation of diplomatic immunity in Islamic law, ensuring the safety of envoys and representatives from other nations. – Reciprocity and fulfillment of obligations are emphasized in Quran 5:1, which commands Muslims to “fulfill your obligations” . This injunction provides the ethical foundation for honoring treaties and international agreements, making contract compliance a religious duty rather than merely a political consideration.[5]
• Surah al-Naml (27:23-44) describes the diplomatic exchange between Prophet Sulaiman (Solomon) and the Queen of Sheba, illustrating principles of communication, negotiation, and mutual respect between rulers of different domain. This narrative establishes the religious legitimacy of diplomatic engagement between Muslim and non-Muslim authorities.[6]

 Prophetic Traditions (Hadith) and Diplomatic Conduct

   The Sunnah (traditions and practices of Prophet Muhammad) provides practical examples of how Quranic principles were implemented in actual diplomatic situations:

• The Prophet emphasized the sacredness of agreements, stating: “Whoever kills a mu’ahid (a person granted protection) shall not smell the fragrance of Paradise” . This establishes the inviolability of diplomatic protections and safe conducts.
• Muhammad taught the importance of selecting qualified envoys based on their capability and trustworthiness, setting standards for diplomatic appointments that would be elaborated by later Islamic scholars.
• The principle of good faith negotiation is demonstrated through numerous hadiths encouraging transparency and honesty in dealings, even with adversaries.

3 .Historical Development of Islamic Diplomacy

1. Diplomacy During the Prophet Muhammad’s Time

The diplomatic career of Prophet Muhammad (c. 570-632 CE) established the foundational practices and principles that would guide Islamic diplomacy for centuries. His approach to international relations evolved through several distinct phases:

• Pre-Hijra Period (Before 622 CE): During the Meccan period, Muhammad’s diplomatic efforts focused primarily on conveying the message of Islam to Arab tribes and neighboring nations. He sent envoys to various leaders and personally traveled to Ta’if to invite its chieftains to Islam, though he was initially rejected and persecuted . The migration to Abyssinia in 615 CE represented an early example of seeking protection under a non-Muslim ruler, with the Muslim migrants receiving asylum from the Christian Negus (king) after a diplomatic appeal presented by Ja’far ibn Abi Talib .
• Constitution of Medina (622 CE): After migrating to Medina, Muhammad established a groundbreaking multireligious governance agreement known as the Constitution of Medina. This document regulated interactions between the different factions of Medina, including Muslim migrants, indigenous Muslims, and Jewish tribes . It established principles of collective security, religious freedom, and shared responsibility while recognizing Muhammad as the ultimate arbitrator in disputes .
• Treaty of Hudaybiyyah (628 CE): This ten-year truce with the Quraysh of Mecca demonstrated Muhammad’s willingness to make strategic compromises for long-term peace. Though the terms initially appeared unfavorable to Muslims, the treaty ultimately resulted in a decisive political and diplomatic victory, allowing Islam to spread more rapidly throughout Arabia . The negotiation process followed four distinct stages: preliminary negotiation, composing treaty text, signing and witnessing, and ratification.
• Letters to World Leaders: In his final years, Muhammad communicated with various rulers including Heraclius (Byzantine Emperor), Khosrau II (Persian Emperor), and the Negus of Abyssinia, inviting them to Islam and proposing diplomatic relations . These letters were reportedly sealed with a silver seal bearing the inscription “Muhammad, the Messenger of Allah”. \Evolution During the Medieval Islamic Era

Following Prophet Muhammad’s death, Islamic diplomacy evolved and institutionalized as the Muslim world expanded and engaged with diverse civilizations:

• Development of Diplomatic Institutions: The Rashidun and Umayyad caliphates established more formalized diplomatic protocols, while the Abbasid period saw the creation of a specialized chancery office (diwan alrasa’il) responsible for foreign correspondence . The Mamluk era produced comprehensive administrative manuals detailing diplomatic practices.

• Theoretical Foundations: Islamic jurists developed a framework for international relations based on the concepts of Dar al-Islam (Abode of Islam) and Dar al-Harb (Abode of War), though in practice these categories were more fluid than rigid . The majority of jurists recognized Dar al-Ahd (Abode of Covenant) for territories with which Muslims had treaty agreements.

4 Key Principles and Mechanisms of Islamic Diplomacy.

  Fundamental Principles Guiding Islamic Diplomatic Practice

Islamic diplomacy operates according to several core principles derived from primary sources and historical practice:

• Peace as Default Position: Contrary to common misconceptions, Islamic jurisprude nce considers peace as the normal state of relations between Muslims and other nations, with warfare being permitted only under specific circumstances such as self-defense or religious persecution. The Quran emphasizes peaceful settlement of conflicts: “If they incline to peace, then incline to it also”[7]
• Pacta Sunt Servanda (Sanctity of Agreements): The Islamic principle of fulfilling obligations (“awfu bi’l-‘uqud”) requires Muslims to honor treaties and agreements as long as the other party remains faithful to them . The Treaty of Hudaybiyyah established the precedent that Muslims must adhere to terms even when disadvantageous .
• Selective Cooperation: While Muslims are permitted to engage in limited cooperation with non-Muslim entities for mutual benefit, such relationships must not compromise Islamic values or strengthen enemies against the Muslim community. Quranic teachings caution against alliances that might undermine Muslim interests or principles.

    Diplomatic principles in foreign relation lesson from the prophet Muhammad saw.

The foreign policy of Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) provides a timeless framework for ethical, strategic, and effective diplomacy. His approach was not merely political but was deeply rooted in Islamic principles of justice, honor, and peace.[8]

1. The Primacy of Peace and Peaceful Coexistence

The default state in international relations, according to the Quran and the Prophet’s practice, is peace, not war. Warfare is only a last resort for selfdefense or against severe persecution.

*   Quranic Principle: “And if they incline to peace, then incline to it also…” (Quran 8:61). This verse commands Muslims to always accept genuine offers of peace.

2. The Sanctity of Treaties (Pacta Sunt Servanda)

Once an agreement is signed, it must be honored to the letter as a matter of religious obligation, even if it becomes disadvantageous.

• Quranic Principle: “O you who believe! Fulfill all obligations…”(Quran 5:1). This extends to treaties with non-Muslims.
• Prophetic Example: The Prophet strictly adhered to the terms of Hudaybiyyah. When allies of the Quraysh broke their pact, he did not respond by breaking the entire treaty. He only took action after the Quraysh themselves violated the treaty by attacking allies of the Muslims, thus nullifying it. [9]

3. Strategic Patience and Long-Term Vision

Diplomacy requires foresight and the willingness to make short-term compromises for long-term strategic goals.

*   Prophetic Example: The perceived “loss” at Hudaybiyyah was so difficult for his companions to accept that Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) had to instruct them three times to perform the ritual sacrifice before they complied. He saw the potential for a bloodless victory that they could not yet see. His vision transformed a momentary setback into the most decisive diplomatic victory of his career.[10]

4. Selecting Envoys of the Highest Caliber

The success of a diplomatic mission hinges on the character, intelligence, and skill of the envoy

*   Prophetic Example: The Prophet carefully chose his ambassadors based on their wisdom, knowledge, and character. He sent Dihyah al-Kalbi to Heraclius, the Byzantine Emperor, and Abdullah ibn Hudhafah to Khosrau, the Persian Emperor. These envoys were chosen for their courage, eloquence, and ability to represent the message of Islam with dignity under pressure.

5. Granting Full Diplomatic Immunity (Aman)

Envoys, ambassadors, and those under protection must be granted full safety and security. Their persons are inviolable.

• Quranic Principle: “And if any one of the polytheists seeks your protection, then grant him protection so that he may hear the words of Allah; then deliver him to his place of safety…”[11]
• Prophetic Tradition: The Prophet said, *”Whoever kills a mu’ahid (a person granted protection) shall not smell the fragrance of Paradise.”* This established the absolute inviolability of diplomatic agents in Islamic law.

6. Dialogue and Communication as a First Resort

Engagement and dialogue are always the first steps, even with adversaries. Of course. Here are the key diplomatic principles in foreign relations derived from the life and teachings of Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ), presented as foundational lessons.

Core Diplomatic Principles from Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ ) in Foreign Relations

1. The Primacy of Peace and Peaceful Coexistence

The default state in international relations, according to the Quran and the Prophet’s practice, is peace, not war. Warfare is only a last resort for selfdefense or against severe persecution.

2. The Sanctity of Treaties (Pacta Sunt Servanda)

Once an agreement is signed, it must be honored to the letter as a matter of religious obligation, even if it becomes disadvantageous.

3. Strategic Patience and Long-Term Vision

Diplomacy requires foresight and the willingness to make short-term compromises for long-term strategic goals.

*   Prophetic Example: The perceived “loss” at Hudaybiyyah was so difficult for his companions to accept that Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) had to instruct them three times to perform the ritual sacrifice before they complied. He saw the potential for a bloodless victory that they could not yet see. His vision transformed a momentary setback into the most decisive diplomatic victory of his career.

4. Selecting Envoys of the Highest Caliber

The success of a diplomatic mission hinges on the character, intelligence, and skill of the envoy.

*   Prophetic Example: The Prophet carefully chose his ambassadors based on their wisdom, knowledge, and character. He sent Dihyah al-Kalbi to Heraclius, the Byzantine Emperor, and Abdullah ibn Hudhafah to Khosrau, the Persian Emperor. These envoys were chosen for their courage, eloquence, and ability to represent the message of Islam with dignity under pressure.

5. Granting Full Diplomatic Immunity (Aman)

Envoys, ambassadors, and those under protection must be granted full safety and security. Their persons are inviolable.

• Quranic Principle: “And if any one of the polytheists seeks your protection, then grant him protection so that he may hear the words of Allah; then deliver him to his place of safety…”[12].
• Prophetic Tradition: The Prophet said, “Whoever kills a mu’ahid (a person granted protection) shall not smell the fragrance of Paradise.”* This established the absolute inviolability of diplomatic agents in Islamic law.

Of course. Here is a concise summary of Al-Ijma’ (الإجماع) in English.

Al-Ijma’ (Consensus): A Summary

     Al-Ijma’ refers to the consensus of opinion of the Muslim scholars (Mujtahideen) of a particular era on a specific Islamic legal ruling after the death of Prophet Muhammad ( ﷺ). It is one of the four primary sources of Islamic law (Shariah), alongside the Quran, the Sunnah, and Qiyas (analogical reasoning)[13].

2. Basis and Authority:

Its authority is derived from Islamic texts. A key proof is the hadith where Prophet Muhammad ( ﷺ) said: *”My Ummah (nation) will never agree upon an error.”* This makes Ijma’ a binding and infallible source of law. [14]

3. Key Conditions for a Valid Ijma’:

• Consensus of Scholars: It must involve the agreement of *all* qualified scholars (Mujtahideen) of a generation, not just a majority.[15]
• Scholarly Qualification: The scholars involved must be experts in Islamic jurisprudence (Fiqh).
• Post-Prophetic Era: The consensus must be on a matter that arose after the death of the Prophet (ﷺ).
• Islamic Ruling: The consensus must be on a shariah ruling, not a linguistic or scientific matter.

4. Types of Ijma:[16]

• Explicit Ijma’ (al-Ijma’ al-Sarih): Every scholar explicitly states their agreement.
• Tacit Ijma’ (al-Ijma’ al-Sukuti): Some scholars state a opinion and the others, aware of it, remain silent without objecting. This is considered a weaker form of consensus.

5. Significance and Role:

• Clarifies Ambiguity: It provides definitive rulings on issues not explicitly detailed in the Quran or Sunnah.
• Ensures Unity: It prevents division and secures the unity of the Muslim Ummah on fundamental legal matters.
• Historical Development: It has been instrumental in formalizing Islamic theology and closing the door to eccentric, individual opinions.

6. Modern Application:

Achieving a classical Ijma’ is considered extremely difficult in the modern era due to the vast number and global dispersion of scholars. However, the concept remains a foundational principle, and collective scholarly effort (like fatwa councils) strives to represent its spirit.[17]

Al-Urf (Custom) 

     Al-Urf refers to customary practices widely accepted by people in a particular society, provided they do not contradict Islamic principles. It is a secondary source of Islamic law (Shariah) used to address issues not explicitly covered by the Quran or Sunnah. Al-Urf is divided into:

• Verbal Custom (Urf Qawl): Common linguistic usage (e.g., specific terms understood locally).
• Practical Custom (Urf Amali): Recurrent actions (e.g., trade practices).[18]

Conditions for Validity:

• Must be predominant and consistent.
• Must not violate Islamic texts or clear religious principles (e.g., interest-based transactions are rejected as *Urf Fasid* [corrupt custom]).[19]

Application: Used in transactions, marriage, and civil matters to ensure laws align with societal contexts.[20]

Democratic Consultation 

    In Islam, consultation (Shura) is a core principle for governance and community decision-making. It emphasizes:

• Inclusivity: Engaging diverse voices, including non-Muslims in matters of public interest (e.g., policy, welfare), as seen in Prophet Muhammad’s consultations.[21]
• Modern Relevance: Combines traditional *Shura* with democratic values like transparency and participation. Scholars debate the extent of non-Muslim involvement in strategic decisions (e.g., national security), but generally allow their input in societal issues.[22]

Ensuring Non-Muslims Have Their Own Rights

Islam guarantees specific rights for non-Muslims under Islamic rule, particularly *Ahl al-Dhimmah* (protected minorities):

• Freedom of Religion: No coercion in belief (Quran 2:256). Non Muslims can practice their faith and manage personal status laws (e.g., marriage, inheritance).[23]
• Justice and Protection: Entitled to fair treatment, security, and social welfare (e.g., financial support from the state treasury).
• Political Participation: Allowed advisory roles (Shura) and voting in elections, though leadership positions are reserved for Muslims. [24]

Historical Example: Caliph Umar’s covenant granted Christians safety, property rights, and religious autonomy.

Equal Safety and Security for All.

Islam mandates universal safety regardless of race, religion, or ethnicity:

• Right to Life and Dignity: Protecting life, property, and honor of all individuals is a religious duty. [25]
• Social Security: Poor and needy non-Muslims receive state support.
• Prophetic Example: Muhammad’s warning: “Whoever harms a non-Muslim under protection will be opposed by me on Judgment Day”.

This principle fosters social cohesion through mutual respect and justice.[26]

Conclusion:

     This exploration of Islamic principles reveals a sophisticated and holistic framework for governance and international relations that is both divinely guided and profoundly practical.

      The analysis began with the core concept of diplomacy in Islam, establishing it as a system rooted in the pursuit of peace and justice. This foundation was further illuminated by examining the diplomatic principles of Prophet Muhammad (SAW), whose strategies—from the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah to his letters to foreign rulers—provide timeless lessons in strategic patience, honesty, and the sanctity of agreements.

       The discussion then highlighted critical mechanisms that ensure this system remains dynamic and just. Al-Ijma’

(consensus) ensures the unity and infallibility of the Muslim community on legal matters, while Al-Urf (custom) allows Islamic law to adapt to societal contexts without violating core principles. The principle of democratic consultation (Shura) mandates inclusive and participatory decision-making at all levels of society.

    Finally, the framework’s commitment to justice is most evident in its unwavering protection of all citizens. The principles of ensuring non-Muslims have their own rights and providing equal safety and security for all, regardless of race or religion, are not modern concessions but are fundamental covenants derived from Islamic law. These tenets guarantee social cohesion and mutual respect.

     In essence, the synergy of these principles—from prophetic statecraft and scholarly consensus to adaptive custom and universal rights—demonstrates the enduring relevance and comprehensiveness of the Islamic model. It offers a viable blueprint for building ethical, resilient, and just societies, contributing meaningfully to the contemporary global discourse on governance, human rights, and international relations.

References

1. AL khouran Karim.
2. AL hadis .
3. .العرف معناه أقسامه وشروط اعتباره “
4. “)عرف )إسلام.”
5. “The Rights of Non-Muslims in Islam.”
6. “.حقوق الأقليات الدينية في حكم الدولة الإسلامية “
7. “الأمان ضرورة إنسانية.. فكيف نحققه؟ “
8. “Democracy as Communication: Towards a Normative Framework.”
9. “.ديمقراطية إعلامية “

• Diplomacy in islam; Ahmed sayed 2018.
• The philosophy of ijma accoding to the scholars of usul al fiqh, mufti al qaderee, 2024

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

introduction………………………………………………………………….. 3

Diplomacy in islam…………………………………………………………. 4

Theological Foundations of Diplomacy in Islam…………………… 5

 Prophetic Traditions (Hadith) and Diplomatic Conduct…………. 6

Diplomatic principles in foreign relation lesson from the prophet Muhammad saw………………………………………………… 9

Al-Ijma’ (Consensus): A Summary……………………………………. 12

Al-Urf (Custom)……………………………………………………………. 13

Democratic Consultation……………………………………………….. 14

Ensuring Non-Muslims Have Their Own Rights………………….. 14

Equal Safety and Security for All……………………………………… 15

Conclusion:…………………………………………………………………. 15

[1] Islamic law blog, history of Islamic international law, 2022.

[2] Ibidem.

[3] Ibidem.

[4] Islamic diplomacy, Muhammad Shafee.

[5] Wikipedia, diplomatic career of Muhammad saw.

[6] Ibidi.

[7] QURAN (8:61).

[8] Islamweb. Net, 9\10\2023.

[9] Diplomacy in islam; Ahmed sayed 2018.

[10] Diplomacy in islam; Ahmed sayed 2018.

[11] Quran 9:6

[12] Quran 9:6

[13] The philosophy of ijma accoding to the scholars of usul al fiqh, mufti  al qaderee, 2024.

[14] Ibidem.

[15] Ibidem.

[16] Islam question, 25\05\2024.

[17] Ibid, 25\5\2025

[18] Islamweb. Net, 9\10\2023.

[19]  Ibidem.

[20] Wikipedia. “)عرف )إسلام)

[21] Ali Muhammad salby, the rights  of religious nuder Islamic rule minority, 2021

[22] Ibidem

[23] Islam house.com, The rights of non mouslim in islam, 2023

[24] Ibidem

[25] طه سليمان عامر، الأمان ضرورة إسلامية…فكيف نحققه، 2022

[26] Ibidem