The Jews of the Mellahs in the Moroccan Atlas during the Pre-Colonial Period in British Orientalist Writings
Prepared by the researche : Dr. Abdelghani EL AMRANI – Regional Academy of Education and Training, – Casablanca-Settat. Kingdom of Morocco
Democratic Arabic Center
Journal of Afro-Asian Studies : Twenty-First Issue – May 2024
A Periodical International Journal published by the “Democratic Arab Center” Germany – Berlin
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Abstrat
The Jews of Morocco have always been a major component of Moroccan society, settling in the country during periods preceding the birth of Christ. As they quickly assimilated into the local population and engaged in building and revitalizing social and economic lives, they also contributed, side by side, to shaping the political and diplomatic landmarks of the country since the fifth and sixteenth centuries AD, in particular.
In order to ensure the security and freedom of the Jews in practicing their religious rites and revitalizing their economic activities in general, the Moroccan sultans initiated the construction of a special neighborhood for the Jews known in Moroccan circles as «The Mellah». In this study, we will attempt to discuss the history of the construction of the «Mellahs» and the reasons behind it before proceeding to explore the depiction provided by British orientalist writings about these Moroccan Mellahs during the period before the French protectorate.
Introduction:
Throughout history, the Jews of Morocco have represented the only non-Muslim religious-ethnic minority in the country. They integrated with the Arab and Berber Muslim population, settling in separate areas that spanned almost the entire Moroccan territory. Their numbers exceeded those of Jews in Algeria and Tunisia[1]. Instead, they constituted the most significant Jewish community in the entire Arab world. In addition to traditional occupations in finance and commerce, involving various transactions both internally and externally, as well as engagement in various crafts and agricultural activities, the Jews stood out for their integration into Moroccan society as an integral component. They immersed themselves in the prevailing culture of both cities and villages. Their contributions played a crucial role in enriching the cultural balance of the country[2].
In order to ensure the safety of the country’s Jews, the Sultans of Morocco took the initiative, early in modern history, to build their own neighborhoods, known in Moroccan circles as «The Mellahs». These neighborhoods contributed to some extent to providing security and safety for them in practicing their various economic, religious, and social activities. Given the significant importance that the «Mellah» holds in the modern and contemporary history of Morocco as one of the fundamental historical «Evidences» indicating the strong presence of the Jewish element in Morocco, We have chosen to focus the discussion in this study on the historical roots of the «Mellahs» and the motives behind calling them «The Mellah». We will then proceed to discuss the living conditions of Jews within these neighborhoods, with a primary emphasis on the Mellahs of the Moroccan Atlas cities. However, our approach to this topic will not be based on local writings or Moroccan Jewish writings. Instead, we will concentrate on elucidating the perspective of British Orientalists, particularly during the period preceding the era of the Protectorate.
1-The Jewish Quarter (ELMallah): Exploring the Dialectics of Origin and Naming
Historical narratives differ regarding the date of construction of the first neighborhood for the Jewish community in Morocco and the main motives behind it, as well as the primary reason for naming it the Mellah[3]. However, there is almost unanimous agreement among historical writings on a central idea: The Marinid Sultan Abu Yusuf Yaqoub Ben AbdelHak (1258-1286 AD) built special residences for Jews in 1276 AD after attacks on them by Moroccan Muslims worsened due to the desecration of the mosque and the placement of wine inside its lanterns[4]. This historical narration intersects with what was stated in the «Book of Histories» by the Rabbis of the Ibn Danan El-Fassi family. Although there are differences between the two narrations regarding the year of construction of the Mellah, this family attributes the Marinid Sultan’s attempt to establish a special neighborhood for Jews to around the year 1438 AD. According to their narrative «They walked (The jews) until they entered the Great Mosque, blocked its water spring, and filled the marble channels through which water flowed with wine. They spent the night drinking until they were drunk. At dawn, they left the location, leaving behind a Jewish individual who remained intoxicated and asleep. Subsequently, Muslims arrived, took him away, and violence unfolded. All the male Jews they encountered were killed, without exception for those who had changed their faith; even children and women were not spared»[5]. These dwellings were known in Moroccan circles as the Mellah, where the word «Mellah» literally means salt. The origin of this peculiar name is difficult to ascertain[6]. Additionally, these neighborhoods were also referred to as «El-Moussous», meaning «the saltless place». This latter name is used sarcastically to describe a place without salt or considered worthless[7]. To what extent can this proposal be accepted?
There is no established fact that the neighborhoods designated for Jewish elements were known as the mellah until at least the fifteenth century AD. Moreover, there is no specific document or source indicating the use of this word to refer to Jewish neighborhoods before the aforementioned date. The name was not exclusively related to Jewish neighborhoods; it was also used in Muslim neighborhoods. When Rabbi Saadia ben Danan spoke about the entry of Abu Hassoun el-Watassi into Fez, supported by the army of the Ottoman Turks to reclaim his throne from the Saadians, he indicated that this entry was from the «Mellah» of the Muslims. E-Zayani had also spoken about Moulay Rashid al-Alawi’s entry into Fez in the year 1667 AD from the wall bordering the Muslim Mellah[8].
The author of «Al-Istiqṣā» mentioned that when the Portuguese took control of the city of Ceuta «it was on the morning of a Friday in some months of the year eight hundred and eighteen. The people of Ceuta came to the Sultan of Fez, crying out to him. They wore sackcloth, let their hair loose, and donned black sandals—men, women, and children alike. In response, the Sultan removed them with Muslim boats and then sent them back to «El Fahs»[9] near their lands»[10]
The oldest accounts referring to the Jewish neighborhood as the Mellah date back to the year 1552 AD. It appears that Arabic-speaking Jews were the first to use this name in order to distinguish Jewish neighborhoods from others in Morocco. However, regarding the specific reason for calling it the Mellah, there are four basic hypotheses. The first one refers to the discovery of salty headwater in the place where the Jews first resided in the city of Fez[11]. The second is related to the word «thrown», signifying the destination, as the sea water «threw» the Jews after the forced migration from Andalusia (the water acted as a force that led them)[12]. The third hypothesis may be related to granting the right to sell salt to the Jews[13]. As for the fourth and final hypothesis, it is connected to the commissioning of Jewish sultans to salt the heads of rebels[14].
This last hypothesis has been adopted by a number of British orientalists and others, such as the British diplomat John Drummond Hay[15], who recounted «On entering the town (Tangier) the soldiers seized the first Jew they met, and obliged him to salt the heads, which were subsequently hung from the top of a square tower on the town wall, fronting the great market-place»[16], and the English journalist James Edward Budgett Meakin (d. 1906) stated «The former designation is explained by the fact that Jewish butchers are forced to pickle the heads of the rebels, which are to be exhibited according to custom above the gates of the towns as a warning to others»[17]. And also, the artist Lawrence Harris (d. 1970 AD) mentioned that the Moroccans called it (the Mellah) sarcastically because the heads of all the rebels were sent to the Mellah to be salted by the Jewish butchers in preparation for hanging them above the gates of the city[18]. However, the rabbis reject this proposal and consider it sarcastically. They assert that the Jews were the first to give the name Mellah to their neighborhood (the place of salt) and that salt plays an important role in life, as the rest of the world’s Jews believe[19].
Despite differences in historical narratives regarding the roots of the Mellah and the true reasons behind its designation, the historical fact that no one disputes is that Moroccan sultans allocated special neighborhoods, isolated from the Muslim communities, for Moroccan Jews in almost all major Moroccan cities. These neighborhoods, known in Moroccan circles as the Mellah, were designated to prevent potential conflicts between Jews and Muslims and to preserve the foundation of Moroccan unity across various societal components, regardless of race and religion. These neighborhoods were heavily guarded, with a commander at every entrance preventing Muslims from entering. Additionally, all entrances were closed in the evening, and the keys were taken to the governor’s house[20].
2-Jewish Neighborhoods (The Mellahs) Through British Eyes
British Orientalist writings elaborated on diagnosing the reality of Jewish neighborhoods, whether in the villages of the Atlas Mountains or the Mellahs of major cities like Fez, Meknes, and Marrakesh during the nineteenth century and the preceding centuries. They detailed the conditions of daily life within those neighborhoods and more. However, this diagnosis appears to contain prejudice and harsh judgments. Tracing the British presence in the Atlas land, we observe their use of linguistic vocabulary that devalued the Jews of the region and their dignity. They described them with the ugliest terms, belittled their ways of living, and despised their alleys and streets. The English journalist Budgett Meakin considered the streets of Jewish neighborhoods, whether in the Atlas regions or other Moroccan cities, as «The streets of the jewish quarters are the filthiest of all the Moorish towns, and are often several feet deep rubbish, so that, visitors descend by steps into the houses»[21]. He depicts the Jewish residents as dirty and filthy, alleging that they bathe only three or four times a year, leaving them vulnerable to various skin diseases. They emanate a foul odor. In contrast, the situation differs among the Jews of coastal cities, who live in a manner akin to Europeans[22], shielded from external influences. They inhabit a separate neighborhood enclosed by walls accessible only through two gates[23]. Indeed, the affluent among them are always ready to obtain a protection card, guaranteeing numerous privileges. The protected Jew in coastal cities, confident in his immunity, holds his head high, protrudes his stomach, and moves freely, as if challenging Moroccan Muslims, proclaiming, «Touch me if you dare», and woe to anyone who falls into his grasp[24].
His description did not differ from that of his colleague Lawrence Harris, who considered the Mellahs of Marrakesh[25], Fez[26], and Essaouira[27] – in his view – as the most significant hotbeds of disease, filth, and extreme misery. The residents there are confined within high walls, unable to increase their numbers due to the lack of additional homes. Moreover, they lack a designated place to dispose of waste, forcing them to discard it in the narrow streets. The situation worsens when there is no water in the Mellah, coinciding with the outbreak of Smallpox and fever, resulting in the death of a significant portion of the population[28].
The same depiction is found in the writings of the British author Hugh Edward Millington Stutfield (d. 1929 AD), who chronicled his observations during his stay in Fez in his book titled «Elmaghreb: 1200 Miles Ride Through Marocco». He characterized the city’s Mellah as dirty and squalid, portraying the Jews’ appearance as profoundly miserable. They are confined within a neighborhood surrounded by a wall after sunset, with several doors that close in the evening. They are not allowed to leave it except barefoot, and some streets are forbidden to them. Additionally, as per his view, they must wear a black cap and distinctive clothing, and entry into Jewish temples or public places of worship is prohibited. When addressing a Muslim, they are required to use the term «Sir» and display other forms of reverence and respect. Furthermore, they are prohibited from riding mules or horses, enduring mistreatment and daily humiliations, making their lives in this country a heavy burden[29].
Similarly, British explorer James Richardson (d. 1851 AD) characterized the Jews of Demnat as having a bad and malicious nature[30]. The English journalist Walter Burton Harris (d. 1933 AD) echoed these ideas in his book «The Land of an African Sultan, Travels to Morocco 1887, 1888, and 1889». Harris described the Jews of Meknes as filthy. In one incident, a crowd of them approached the house in which he lived in the city of Meknes in a «humiliating» and disgusting manner, intending to sell him «inferior» antiques at exorbitant prices. In response, Harris instructed the guard soldiers not to allow them to enter. Furthermore, Harris referred to the Jewish Mellah[31] as a despicable neighborhood. The treatment of Jews by Muslims in Meknes is similar to that in Fez. Ironically, Harris added that the Jews did not complain about anything except the filth, which they appeared to enjoy[32].
Likewise, the French artist George Montbard (d. 1905 AD) described them when he visited the city of Meknes in the 1890s. He recorded the following «This morning, on leaping out of bed…, Some Jews arrive. From underneath their black shabby garments they extract from dirty check handkerchiefs bracelets, silver collars, copper candlesticks, and importune us to buy at exorbitant prices these almost worthless articles»[33]. Montbard highlighted that they lived in a neighborhood called Mellah, characterized by crowded houses and dirty streets filled with waste, rotten vegetables, and decaying meat, emitting a foul odor. In some narrow alleys, merchants sell dirty, disgusting items, while despicable children gather immersing themselves in streams of stagnant water with dogs. Seated on the doorsteps of houses were Jewish women known for their obesity, adorned with kohl-rimmed eyes and wearing heavy earrings in their ears, adorned their feet, and other bracelets studded with stones gracing their wrists[34].
In the early nineteenth century, the English physician John Buffa estimated that out of the one hundred thousand people constituting the total population of Meknes[35], twenty-five thousand were Jews. They lived in a distinct, fortified neighborhood, guarded by special forces under the supervision of the commander[36].
The British geologist and explorer Joseph Thomson (d. 1895 AD) employed a similar approach when assessing the living conditions of the Jewish community in Demnat during the late nineteenth century. His observations, recorded in his book «Travels in the Atlas and Southern Morocco: A Narrative of Exploration», include several remarks about its Jewish inhabitants. He described them as living in dirty streets full of garbage[37], portraying them as miserable. They did not have a private neighborhood known as the Mellah, but it seemed to be under construction. As for the women, they wore dirty Abayas, were obese, and their appearance was deemed disgusting. He concluded his remarks by saying «though all the Mellahs are abominably filthy, that of Demnat is in that respect far ahead of any other I have seen»[38].
Harris admits that he was greatly affected at first by the suffering of the Jews in Morocco and showed sincere compassion for them, much like other travelers who visited Morocco before him. However, he confirms that his view of them quickly changed. Eventually, he realized that there were no people more corrupt, less respectable, and more willing to steal and plunder than the Moroccan Jews. Nevertheless, he ultimately admits that he received good treatment from some Moroccan Jews, from whom he learned a lot regarding the history of Morocco[39].
What further indicates the excessive harshness in assessing the conditions of the Jews in the Atlas is what the British explorer and botanist Joseph Dalton (d. 1911 AD) recorded in his book titled «Journal of a Tour in Marocco and the Great Atlas».When discussing the Jewish quarter in the city of Marrakesh, he described it as a dirty neighborhood[40]. Additionally, when speaking with excessive superiority about the Jews of the village of «Mesfioua»[41], he recounted an incident from the winter of 1878 AD. During their preparation to cross the Atlas Mountains, a group of «miserable» Jews warmly welcomed him and his companions, offering various supplies such as oil, wine, hot pepper, and sweets. He found the appearance of the Jews’ cakes disgusting, and the wine horrible, especially when served in an old tin teapot. Unable to eat anything, he and his companions informed the Jews that they couldn’t drink from the indescribably disgusting old pot. In response, a Jewish woman lifted her skirt and began cleaning the cup to the satisfaction of the guests[42].
And what Budgett Meakin noted in his book «Life in Morocco», where he acknowledged that Muslims’ treatment of Jews in the land of the Atlas is likened to their treatment of dogs. He described a relationship marked by hatred and animosity between the two sides. Meakin portrayed the Jew as a despised yet indispensable individual, subject to harassment but still prosperous. According to him, the Jew could prevail over his opponent in matters of justice if wealthier, refrained from bearing witness against a Muslim, and dared not raise his hand against him, regardless of the severity of mistreatment. Nevertheless, the Jew sought revenge on his enemy through dealing with usury[43].
Likewise, in his study of «The Jews of Morocco», when he talked about Jewish synagogues, he described them as despicable neighborhoods, recording the following: «I have visited many, but they have a wearsome sameness, I speak now of the the typical ones with no reference to the fine modern buildings erected by public or by private liberality in some of the coast towns, as for instance the new synagogues in tangier wall, nest door to my home, or that of the Messrs.Nahon, close by»[44]. He continued, «Several of these synagogues are small with labyrinthine entrances, some passing through dwellings, and distressingly odoriferous…., in other towns the condition of things is often very much worse, the house of prayer serving also to sleep, eat, and kill chichhkens in, not to mention ccooking and trade. I never saw more neglected places in actual use than in Marrakesh (Morocco city) and Amizmiz, the latter on the slopes of the Atlas»[45].
It is evident from the passage above that British Orientalist writings displayed significant prejudice against the Jews of the Atlas. These writings went to great lengths to diminish their value and social status, relegating them to an inferior position and describing them with slanderous depictions. This bias indicates a deviation from the path of objectivity, seriousness, and honesty in conveying the news of this authentic Hebrew-Moroccan component. Perhaps this bias is a result of the influence, common among Europeans in the nineteenth century, of the theory of the centrality of the civilized West and the categorization of other groups as «marginalized», «savage», and «backward», unworthy of occupying a central role. Reading the introductions of the aforementioned writings reveals the extent of the prejudice against Morocco and its society, with expressions such as «the Moors», «barbarians», «savages», «illiterates», and «Ignorant People»[46]. Undoubtedly, these writings, preceding the occupation of Morocco, were actively promoting in Western circles a perception of a «Barbaric» and «Chaotic» Morocco, where its inhabitants—Muslims and Jews—were deemed «Savage»; therefore, European governments were convinced to intervene with the aim of bringing Morocco into the circle of civilization, progress, and prosperity.
It must be noted that there are English writings that did not align with colonial perspectives, such as the work of the British traveler and explorer John Davidson (d. 1836) titled «Notes Taken During Travels in Africa». In this work, he mentioned his observations about the Jewish quarter (Mellah)[47] in the city of Rabat, stating: «We went to the Millah to see the Jews’ quarters. There are some fine houses, and beautiful women»[48]. Regarding the reality of life for the Jews of the High Atlas, he noted that they live in «an atmosphere of freedom and challenge»[49].
And the travel book by the American journalist, diplomat, and translator Stephen Bonsal (d. 1951), titled «Morocco As It Is: With an Account of Sir Charles Euan Smith’s Recent Mission to Fez». In this book, he acknowledged that the early Atlas Jews followed the path of searching for wealth. While it was believed that they would not assimilate and mingle with the local population, their descendants now live in complete peace and harmony with each other. They can now read Hebrew, have access to some sacred writings, and preserve their religion in its original form and content[50].
In a similar context, the British captain George Robert Beauclerk (d. 1871) expressed explicitly in his work «A Journey to Marocco in 1826» that the Jews in Morocco are a model of sincerity. It is impossible to find better men and more angelic women than these people. However, these people are exposed to persecution by Muslims who teach their children from a young age the ways and means of attacking the Jews. Simultaneously, he acknowledged being captivated by the local virtues of this remarkable community while praising their ways of life[51].
The British writer, politician, and journalist Robert Bontine Cunninghame Graham (d. 1936) explicitly discussed the Jews of the Atlas in his book titled «Mogreb-el-Acksa: A Journey in Morocco ». He specifically mentioned the Jews of the village of Imintanout, describing them as diligent individuals whose appearance resembled Europeans. According to him, they excelled in commercial affairs over both Arabs and Berbers[52]. While on his way to the village of Amzmiz[53], he encountered several Jews, exchanged greetings with them, and noticed signs of joy and happiness on their faces. He mentioned that all the Jews there could read and write, appreciating their good appearance and wonderful black eyes[54].
Even journalist Budgett Meakin, who had previously spoken harshly about the Jews of the Atlas, later admitted in his book «The Moors: A Comprehensive Description» that the Jews endured brutal persecution in Christian Europe. They found refuge and tranquility under the rule of Moroccan sultans, who welcomed them after expulsions from Italy in 1342 AD, the Netherlands in 1380 AD, France around 1403 AD, England in 1422 AD, Portugal in 1496 AD, and Spain during the years 1391 AD, 1414 AD, 1492 AD, and 1610 AD. Immediately after their expulsion from Spain, many Jews sailed on a Spanish fleet to the Moroccan coast, particularly to the city of Asilah, which was a «Christian» settlement. From there, they moved to the city of Fez, where a large number of their brethren resided. In fact, with their significant numbers, they succeeded in making the city of Fez a major center for Judaism[55].
This narrative is strongly supported by the researcher Abdullah Hussein in his author «The Jewish Question», where he discusses the various forms of persecution suffered by European Jews, especially in Germany during the 11th century AD. In this period, Emperor Henry II (d. 1024) expelled Jews from Mainz and other places, and persecution continued against them in the subsequent centuries. In France, their properties were confiscated by order of King Louis VII (d. 1180), and they lived a miserable life in Russia, being viewed as outcasts. In England, they endured hardships during the reign of Richard the Lionheart (d. 1199), as well as in other European countries[56]. Perhaps these indicators, among others, were a major reason for the successive migrations of Jews to North Africa, especially to Morocco, which welcomed them and provided reasons for protection and security.
As for the Scottish writer, politician, and diplomat David Urquhart (d. 1877), he denied that the Jews of the Atlas worked for the benefit of the Makhzen (the Moroccan government) or for individuals without pay, stressing that they substituted the payment of tribute with labor instead of paying it in money. He also mentioned that they had access to sacred books, temples, and rabbis, and they freely practiced their religious rituals. This contradicts what was stated by the author Edward Millington Stutfield, who wrote about them with excessive cruelty[57]. David, at the same time, emphasized that he had met several Jews in the city of Marrakech, specifically at the home of a Jewish man named Yacoub, who hosted him during his visit to the Red City. He found all of them to be vibrant, intelligent individuals filled with vitality and contentment[58].
The American researcher, Emily Gottreich, confirmed that Jews and Muslims in Marrakesh lived side by side, contributing jointly to revitalizing economic activity both inside and outside the Mellah. This resulted from the organic economic connection between Jewish and Islamic spaces, as the Mellah and the city collectively served as markets for both communities. Muslims were attracted to purchasing Jewish goods within the Mellah and then reselling them in other parts of the city. Additionally, Muslims established significant commercial relationships with the butchers in the Mellah. Muslims did not only come to the Mellah for buying purposes, but also to showcase their goods and services. Muslim porters, water sellers, and beggars became familiar sights in the Mellah. Furthermore, many Muslims owned real estate properties within the Mellah, constituting approximately 10% of the total houses in the Jewish quarter by the year 1890. Most of these properties were rented to Jews. The establishment of the Universal Israelite Alliance’s[59] school in Marrakech in the winter of 1900-1901 played a significant role in bringing Jews and Muslims together. The school employed numerous Muslim guards and other assistants, with several Muslim students enrolling. Additionally, Muslims utilized the Jewish space, albeit to a lesser extent, for religious purposes—either to honor certain tombs of saints in the Jewish cemetery or to perform specific rituals there in their search for spouses[60]. All of this underscores that Muslims and Jews lived side by side in the Atlas region without any discrimination.
Conclusion
In summary, British travelers, writers, and others who visited Morocco before French colonialism were able to document many significant historical testimonies regarding the Mellahs in the cities and villages of the Atlas Mountains, as well as the living conditions of the Jews within them. These diverse testimonies intertwine history with geography, society with culture, and economics with politics. Despite its lack of objectivity and failure to encompass all historical truths, they remain valuable historical materials for researchers to enrich their academic studies. Despite its importance in historical studies, it still definitively needs criticism and examination, lest researchers be swayed by its unilateral orientations.
The Atlas Mellahs were mentioned in the pages of the aforementioned orientalists in an excessively arrogant and greatly exaggerated manner. In these descriptions, the Jewish population was portrayed in a very lowly way, inhabiting a dirty and filthy environment. These depictions and epithets reflect self-emotion, prejudices, ready-made images, and positions imbued with the theory of the centrality of the advanced West and the backward East, charged with the spirit of control and domination over all non-European peoples. Such European writings in general, which preceded the era of the French protectorate, were primarily aimed at serving the governments of European countries. It became clear from this historical stage that the reasons for power and survival led them to engage in expansion at the expense of what they considered a «backward margin».
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[1] British Captain George Robert Beauclerk estimated that the Jewish population in Morocco, during the year 1826 AD was one-third of the total population of the cities. George Robert Beauclerk, A Journey to Marocco in 1826, London,1828, p.277.
[2] Mohammad Kenbib, The Jews of Morocco 1912-1948.Translated by Idris ben Said, Publications of the Faculty of Arts and Human Sciences in Rabat, Al-Najah New Press, Casablanca, 1998, p. 17
[3] The actual historical reasons explaining the construction of the Mellah are still shrouded in mystery, warranting further research and exploration on the subject. Despite its significant social implications, sources merely provide brief references to its establishment, divorcing it from its supposed political, economic, and social context. These sources often attribute its creation either to rulers’ efforts to ensure security and reassure the Jewish population or to their desire to prevent religious or moral conflicts between Jews and Muslims. Consequently, the true motives behind their establishment remain obscure. This ambiguity has prompted some researchers to offer negative interpretations of the Mellahs’ construction, portraying them as fortified ghettos designed for isolation and confinement. Mohammed ELahiya, «On the circumstances of the construction of the mellah of the city of Meknes during the reign of Mawla Ismail (1672-1727 AD)☼. Hespress Tamuda, vol. LI, n°. 2, 2016, p. 342.
[4] Researcher Fatima Bouamama referenced a text attributed to the Jews of Morocco, composed in Moroccan colloquial language, detailing the reasons behind the Jews’ migration to Mellah in the city: «In the year 5198, Jews residing in Fez were part of the city’s population. However, due to forceful eviction by Muslims, some lost their lives, others converted to Islam, and some families left to establish the Mellah. This upheaval originated from the discovery of a bottle of wine in a mosque, leading to jealousy among Muslims. In 5225, Muslims found a Jew dead in the Medina, falsely accusing the Jewish community. Evidently, they targeted and killed numerous Jews, including men, women, and children during an attack on the emerging mellah. Eventually, only twenty men, along with a few children and women, remained in the Mellah». Fatima Bouamama, The Jews in the Islamic Maghreb (during the 7th-8th centuries AH / 14-15 AD). Mua’sasat Kanoz al-Hikmah for Publishing and Distribution Foundation, 2011, Algeria, pp. 68-69.
[5] Pontiffs from the family of Ibn Danan El-Gharnatiya El-Fassiya, Book of History. Translated from Hebrew by Abdel Aziz Chahbar, Tetouan Asmir Association, Shuwaikh Press, 1st edition, 2002, pp. 7-8.
[6] Lawrence Harris, With Mulai HAfid At Fez: Behind The Scenes in Morocco, London, 1909, pp.192-193.
[7] Budgett Meakin, «The Jews of Morocco», The Jews Quarterly Review,Vol.4,No. 3 (Apr.1892), p.372؛ The Moors: A Comprehensive Description, London, 1902, p.426
[8] Mohmmed Maarouf, «Aspects of the History of the Moroccan Jewish Population, the Attraction of Isolation and Mixing». Amal journal, 25(50), 2018, 162-163.
[9] Fahs Anjra is one of the regions in the Kingdom of Morocco, situated in the Tangier-Tetouan-El Hoceima region, and is located near the city of Ceuta.
[10] Aẖmad ben Ḵālid E-Nāṣirī, Al-Istiqṣā’ li-Akhbār Dūl al-Maghrib al-Aqṣá. Tāḥqīq wa-Taʿlīq: Jaʿfar E-Nāṣirī wa-Muḥammad E-Nāṣirī, Munshūrāt Dār al-Kutub, Juz 4, E-Dār al-Bayḍāʾ, 1997, p. 92
[11] The Spanish researcher Julio Calvo-Serrano, in collaboration with other researchers, as well as the findings of the American researcher Emily Gutrich, notes that the first Mellah constructed in Morocco was in the city of Fez in the year 1438 AD during the reign of the Marinid Sultan Abu Muhammad Abd al-Haqq II (1420-1465 AD). The Mellah was situated in an area with salt deposits, which is why the name Mellah was given to the Jewish neighborhood. Julio Calvo-Serrano et al, «Mellah: The Jews Quarter at the Medinas of Morocco. A new Interpretation of the Minority’s Space in the Islamic City». Procedia Engineering 161 (2016), p.1325; Emily Gottreich, The mellah of Marrakesh: Jewish and Muslim Space in Morocco’s Red City, Indiana University Press Bloomington, IN 47404-3797 USA, 2007, p.12؛ «On the Origings of the Mellah of Marrakesh». Int. J. Middle East Stud , 35 (2003), the United States of America DOI : 10. 1017.S0020743803000126, p.287.
[12]Ahmed Shahlan, Moroccan Jews from the Source of Origins to the Winds of Division: A Reading of Heritage and Events. Bouregreg Printing and Publishing House, 2009, p. 140.
[13] Ibid, p. 140.
[14] Muhammad Maarouf, op, cit, p.164.
[15] He descended from the Scottish aristocracy and was born in the French city of Valenciennes on June 1, 1818 AD. He arrived in the city of Tangier in 1832 AD when he was no more than fifteen years old. There, he focused his interests on learning the Arabic language, becoming proficient in both writing and translating some of its texts into English. This laid the initial groundwork for his future diplomatic endeavors in Islamic countries. He first served as Assistant British Consul General in Alexandria under Hodges before moving on to work in the service of Lord Ponsonby in Constantinople. Subsequently, he was appointed Consul General of Britain in Morocco after the passing of his father, Edward, in the year 1845 AD. This marked the commencement of a lengthy period during which John Drummond Hay remained in Morocco, the conclusion of which was not determined until the year 1886 AD. Khalid E-Saghir, Morocco and Great Britain in the Nineteenth Century (1856-1886). E-Najah New Press, 2nd ed, 1997, pp. 52-54; Jean-Louis Miége, Le Maroc et L‘Europe 1822-1906. Tome II, Editions La Porte, Rabat, 1962, pp. 271-277.
[16] John Drummond Hay, Western Barbary: Its Wild Tribes and Savage Animals. London, 1844, p. 58.
[17] E. Budgett Meakin, «The Jews of Morocco»,op,cit, p.372؛ The Moors…, op, cit, p.427.
[18] Lawrence Harris, op, cit, p.193; Ahmed Shahlan, op, cit, p.140.
[19] Lawrence Harris, op, cit, p. 193.
[20] George Robert Beauclerk, op, cit, pp. 277-278؛ Budgett Meakin, The Moors…, op, cit, p.426؛ Stephen Bonsal, Morocco As It Is: With an Account of Sir Charles Euan Smith’s Recent Mission to Fez. New York, 1893, p. 315.
[21] Budgett Meakin, «The Jews of Morocco», op, cit, p.390.
[22] Ibid, pp.390-391.
[23] Joseph Dalton Hooker, Journal of A Tour In Marocco And The Great Atlas, London, 1878, p.157.
[24] Hugh E. M. Stutfield, Elmaghreb: 1200 Miles Ride Through Marocco, London, 1886, p.141.
[25] The Mellah of Marrakesh, as outlined in the novel by the Spanish researcher Julio Calvo-Serrano, is believed to have been established by Sultan Muhammad El-Sheikh E-Saadi, the first sultan of the Saadian states, during the mid-sixteenth century. However, the American researcher Emily Gottreich associates its founding with Sultan Abdullah el-Ghalib, who aimed to separate the Jewish population from the Muslim population by creating a distinct neighborhood for Jews. This occurred specifically between 1557 and 1560 AD. Julio Calvo-Serrano et al, op, cit, p.1325; Emily Gottreich, The mellah of Marrakesh, op, cit, pp.15-18; «On the Origings of the Mellah of Marrakesh», op, cit, pp.290-293.
[26] It was founded during the reign of the Marinid Sultan Abdul Haqq II in 1438 AD. Julio Calvo-Serrano et al, op, cit, p.1325.
[27] It was founded during the reign of the Alaouite Sultan Moulay Suleiman. Julio Calvo-Serrano et al, op, cit, p.1325.
[28] Lawrence Harris, op, cit, p.194.
[29] Hugh E. M. Stutfield, op, cit, pp..95-96؛Walter Burton Harris, The Land of An African Sultan: Travels In Morocco 1887,1888, and 1889, London, 1889, p.133.
[30] James Richardson, Travels in Morocco, London, 1860, p.171.
[31] The mellah was founded in the city of Meknes in 1686 AD by the Alaouite Sultan Moulay Ismail. Julio Calvo-Serrano et al, op, cit, p.1325.
However, researcher Mohammed ELahiya dates its founding to the year 1682 AD, based on Al-Qadiri’s narration. Nevertheless, Al-Qadiri’s account only mentions the date of issuance of the Sultan’s decision to evacuate the Jews from their homes, noting that the Sultan issued the decision in the month of June of the mentioned year. Therefore, according to Professor ELahiya, estimating the period required to build the Mellah after that is challenging. However, what is certain is that the Meknes Mellah was constructed under the supervision of the Jewish Sheikh Abraham Maamran, with the assistance of English and Portuguese Captives, in exchange for paying the price of their ransom to the Sultan. Mohammed ELahiya, op, cit, pp. 341-356.
[32] Walter Burton Harris, op, cit, pp.83-84.
[33] George Montbard, Among the Moors: Sketches of Oriental Life, London, 1894, p.143.
[34] Ibid, pp.148-149.
[35] American researcher Jessica Marglin confirms that the golden age of Meknes city was in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries AD. However, the city’s status quickly declined in favor of Fez at the end of the nineteenth century AD, and the number of the Jewish community there also significantly declined. By the beginning of the twentieth century, the Jewish population had decreased to six thousand people. Nevertheless, the city of Meknes remained a vital center of Moroccan Jewish life. Jessica Marglin, «Poverty and Charity in a Moroccan City: A Study of Jewish Communal Leadership in Meknes, 1750-1912». The Convergence of Judaism and Islam: Religious, Scientific, and Cultural Dimensions, University Press of Florida, 2011, pp. 300-301.
[36] John Buffa, Travels Through the Empire of Morocco, London ,1810, p.162
[37] Joseph Thomson, Travels in the Atlas and Southern Morocco: A Narrative of Exploration, London 1889, p.145.
[38] Ibid, p.157,159.
[39] Burton Harris, op, cit, p.132.
[40] Joseph Dalton Hooker, op, cit. p.157.
[41] It is a mountainous Berber village situated in the central part of Morocco, currently part of the Al Haouz province.
[42] Joseph Dalton Hooker, op, cit, p.169.
[43] Budgett Meakin, Life in Morocco and Glimpses Beyond, London, 1905, pp.16-17.
[44] Budgett Meakin, «The Jews of Morocco…...»,op,cit,pp.384-385.
[45] Budgett Meakin, The Moors: A Comprehensive Descriptionop, cit, p.439؛ «The Jews of Morocco»,op, cit, ,p.385
[46] For example, you may refer to the introduction of the book: Lawrence Harris, op, cit, p. Vi.
And also refer to the author:
David Urquhart,The Pillars of Hercules, Or, A Narrative of Travels in Spain and Morocco in 1848, V II, London, 1850, p.266.
[47] It was founded during the reign of the Alaouite Sultan Moulay Suleiman. Julio Calvo-Serrano et al, op, cit, p.1325.
[48] John Davidson, Notes Taken During Travels in Africa, London, 1839, p.27.
[49] Ibid, p.59.
[50] Stephen Bonsal, op, cit, p.314.
[51] George Robert Beauclerk, op, cit, p.279-281
[52] Robert Bontine Cunninghame Graham, Mogreb-el-Acksa: A Journey in Morocco , London, 1898, p.84.
[53] It is an Amazigh village located 117 km west of Marrakesh, administratively belonging to the Chichaoua district.
[54] Robert Bontine Cunninghame Graham, op, cit, p.117,108.
[55] Budgett Meakin, The Moors: A Comprehensive Description, op, cit, pp. 452-453.
[56] Abdullah Hussein, The Jewish Question, Hindawi Foundation for Education and Culture Publications, Cairo, 2012, pp. 113-120.
[57] David Urquhart , op, cit, p.268.
[58] Ibid, p.272.
[59] Founded in 1860 in the French city of Paris, it originated as an international Jewish organization with the primary mission of liberating the Jews of the Middle East and North Africa through a focus on modern Western education. The organization opened its inaugural school in Morocco in 1860 AD, specifically in the city of Tetouan. Aomar Boum, «Schooling in the Bled: Jewish Education and the Alliance Israélite Universelle in Southern Rural Morocco, 1830-1962», Journal of Jewish Identities, January 2010, 3(1),p.1; Jessica M. Marglin, Across Legal Lines Jews and Muslims in Modern Morocco, Yale University, 2016, p.210.
[60] Emily Gottreich, The mellah of Marrakesh, op, cit, pp.73-74؛ «On the Origings of the Mellah of Marrakesh», op,cit,p.298.
