Artificial intelligence within the requirements of updating the field of international relations

 

Prepared by the researche :  Chouaib Abderahmani, University of Tamanghasset, (Algeria)

Democratic Arabic Center

Journal of Political Science and Law : Fortieth Issue – June 2024

A Periodical International Journal published by the “Democratic Arab Center” Germany – Berlin

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Abstract

This study aims to monitor the changes at the international system level that have accompanied the scientific and informational revolution, as well as the fourth industrial revolution and artificial intelligence. The study investigates the nature of the interconnection between international relations as a field of knowledge and artificial intelligence, which has come to dominate our lives and transform them into realms whose consequences we are yet to fully understand.

This prompts us to study this phenomenon. which rivals the emergence of globalization to the extent that we now encounter terms closely associated with artificial intelligence, such as cyberterrorism, information security, technological doctrines of nations, and others. The findings of this study conclude that artificial intelligence has brought about an unprecedented revolution, transforming the nature of international relations from its traditional form to an intelligent one. Governments and international organizations have all worked towards maximizing the benefits of this scientific and informational revolution by harnessing the technologies produced by digitization and artificial intelligence in the areas of warfare and weapon development, which ultimately stems from breakthroughs in research laboratories and studies across various sectors.

Introduction:

This study aims to explore the impact of technology on international relations, focusing on key technological advancements such as artificial intelligence, robotics, virtual reality, digital technology, remote education, social media, the internet, websites, search engines, databases, software, printers , 3D printing, open sources, and many others. These words are not only the most commonly used but also have significant influence on our daily lives, raising vital questions about the consequences of the technological revolution in the field of international relations, as they introduce new factors for measuring a country’s progress.

Understanding the impact of technology in international relations is the central claim around which this study revolves. It is impossible to understand and interpret the international order after the end of the Cold War without addressing the greatest phenomenon that paralleled its emergence, globalization. These technological terms have become an integral part of our daily lives to the extent that we now encounter terms closely associated with artificial intelligence, such as cyberterrorism, information security, and technological doctrines of nations.

Research Problem:

The problem of the study is the increased use of artificial intelligence techniques in all areas of international economic, commercial and diplomatic relations, as well as the military fields and armed conflicts, in light of the terrible disparity between the capabilities of countries in the fields of peaceful and military artificial intelligence, and the extent to which the rules of international law keep pace with these developments in the uses of artificial intelligence in all areas. Fields of international relations (peace and war), and the adequacy of current international legal rules to address these developments there is an urgent need to conclude modern international agreements through which modern international legal texts can be drafted that are commensurate with the tremendous development in the fields of artificial intelligence, or at least the formulation of additional protocols to update the already existing agreements. Accordingly, the problem of our research revolves around: the extent of the effectiveness of the international efforts currently being made to keep pace with the growing uses of artificial intelligence in the field of international relations.

Significance of the Study:

 The significance of this research lies in its attempt to identify the most important applications of artificial intelligence, which has become the focus of numerous studies and research. It will be the driving force behind progress, growth, and prosperity in the coming years. Additionally, the importance of this research lies in determining the effects resulting from the applications of artificial intelligence in the field of international relations.

The importance of the study also lies in the huge increase to use artificial intelligence techniques in all areas of international relations, whether in time of peace or time of war, which is necessary fin ding An international legal nature to regulate the use of these technologies, or the development of international legal texts to apply to new cases in which artificial intelligence technologies are used, so that there is no infringement on the sovereignty of member states of the international community through the use of these technologies in espionage or assaults military through drones or assault on interests economic or commercial to countries through examining on the secrets of countries through electronic hacking operations, as well as changing international political trends by spreading false news to create public opinion around the world influences international decisions.

Research Objectives:

 This research aims to shed light on the fundamental concepts of artificial intelligence by defining its concept and stages of development. It also seeks to identify its most recent applications, as it is a relatively recent event that seeks to simulate human intelligence. Moreover, the study aims to determine the significant implications of artificial intelligence on the field of international relations.

Research Methodology:

 To address the previous research problem, a descriptive methodology was employed. This involved describing the theoretical frameworks of the concept of artificial intelligence and its intelligent systems by referring to available writings and research.

Structure of the Study:

To answer the main research question, this study is divided into the following sections:

1. First: The Conceptual Framework of the Study Variables

 Through this axis, we will attempt to provide a definition of the field of international relations from various cognitive perspectives. We will also address the description of artificial intelligence, trace its evolutionary path, study the key differences between artificial intelligence and human intelligence, and explore the reasons for its significance.

2. Definition of International Relations

We will attempt to define international relations linguistically and terminologically.

• Definition of International Relations Linguistically:

International relations are a compound term consisting of two words: “relations” and “international.” We will clarify their meanings as follows[1]:

• Relations: It is the plural form of the verb “to relate,” which means to connect or attach something to something else. When an object is suspended or hung from something higher, we say it is “suspended” (alaqa) in Arabic. If one thing is attached to another, they have a relationship. Thus, relations refer to the connections that link things together.
• International: It is the feminine form of the adjective “international,” which is derived from the noun “state” (dawla), meaning a state or nation. Just as we use “Egyptian” to refer to someone from Egypt or “Iraqi” for someone from Iraq, “international” is related to a state or nation. The verb form “dawala” has various meanings.

1. The transition from one place to another, the people (Andal) say when they move from one place to another. And the people ‘exchange’ (Tadawul) a thing when it moves among them.
2. Weakness and relaxation, they say ‘Dall’ (wore down) the clothes when they’re worn due to the passage of time and intense use. The term ‘Dawlah’ with a Fatha (short “a”) on the Daad (d), refers to a battle, or to whoever has supremacy in it. ‘Dawlah’ in war means the dominance in the war belongs to so-and-so, and this is evident in the Quranic verse: “And these days We alternate them among the people”-meaning we flip them and divert them; Sometimes dominance belongs to one group, other times to another.

‘Dawlah’ with a Dammah (short “o”) on the Daad (d) is used in the context of wealth. The Qur’an says: “What Allah has bestowed on His Messenger from the people of the towns, belongs to Allah, to His Messenger, and to kindred and orphans, the needy and the wayfarer; in order that it may not merely circulate among the wealthy Among you” Thus, Allah commanded the distribution of spoils among the classes mentioned in the verse so that this wealth does not just circulate among the rich. In this context, ‘Dawlah’ linguistically means power, authority, and dominance[2].

• Definition of international relations terminologically:

The field of international relations emerged as a discipline of interest in the United States following World War I en 1919. It then transferred to Britain and witnessed rapid and vast development, particularly after World War II, when the teaching of this specialism spread across various countries of the world. Numerous factors have contributed to the expansion of this field, most notably the encouraging means put at the disposal of researchers, the establishment of specialized institutes, and the abundance of literature. Given the novelty of this field, there is significant disagreement among thinkers regarding the definition of international relations[3].

The specialists and scholars have varied in defining international relations. The concept of ‘relations’ is extremely vague. In its modern use, it does not only include relations between states, but also encompasses relations between states and non-state entities, such as churches, humanitarian relief organizations, multinational corporations, and existing relationships between states and international governmental organizations, such as the United Nations and the European Union. Therefore, we will present here some of the most prominent writers who have defined international relations and the key concepts proposed for international relations. We will also discuss some of the most important definitions of international relations[4]

Among the most significant definitions of international relations is the one penned by Garrison Kirk and Walter Sharp in 1940. They posited that international relations involve the most influential political powers in foreign policy. In 1950, Hans Morgenthau and Kenneth Thompson considered the essence of international relations to be international politics, whose fundamental substance is the struggle for power among sovereign states. Meanwhile, virally viewed international relations as only dealing with relations between states, defining them as the ties that bind political authorities that attempt to evade higher political power. In his 1917 book “What are international relations?”, Mackilland defined international relations as the study of interactions among specific types of social entities,[5].

The political encyclopedia by Abdul Wahab El-Kayyali provides a definition for international relations as being: (a part of political science, encompassing principles, rules, and norms of relationships, connections, and links between member states of the international community in various political, social, economic, cultural, and legal fields)[6].

Furthermore, the French thinker Marcel Merle views that international relations went through two main phases separated by the sixteenth century AD. In the first phase, international relations were between geographically semi-isolated regions: the Mediterranean, Asia, Latin America, Africa, and Europe. The relations between them were discontinuous and limited, not exceeding warfare and diplomatic protocol.

The second phase, after the sixteenth century AD, was characterized by comprehensive, continuous, and diverse international relations. The relationships came to include all parts of the globe, and peoples began to live a single international history.

Reynolds defines international relations as the study of the nature, behavior, definitions, and impacts of relationships between individuals and groups operating within a uniquely chaotic stage.

Duroselle insists that international relations are constituted through the political relations of a state with another state, and then the relationships of groups or individuals across borders. The first appearance of these relations is in foreign policy. These political relations can be established either within a regional framework or on a global scale.

Finally, some have defined international relations as comprehensive, encompassing groups, whether formal or informal. They include communications between states and all movements of people, goods, and ideas across national borders[7].

From this assortment of definitions that cover the most significant aspects of defining international relations, we can deduce that international relations do not just include relations between states but also other entities such as governmental and non-governmental international organizations, communication, transport, trade, finance , agriculture, labor, health, science, philosophy, and culture. These factors have established numerous international social relations and contributed to the emergence of the term “international” to denote extensive activity in relations between states. Without communication, states would not establish international relations.

• Definition of Artificial Intelligence

Artificial Intelligence has been defined by numerous researchers and authors as follows:

O’Brien defines it as: “A science and technology built upon several cognitive fields such as computer science, mathematics, biology, philosophy, and engineering, which aims to develop the functions of computers to simulate human intelligence.”

Hence, it is a conglomerate of various cognitive fields that interact to program machines in a technical manner that enables them to emulate human thought.

Levin and others define it as: “Artificial Intelligence is the means by which a computer becomes an intelligent thinker”[8]

From this definition, we deduce that Artificial Intelligence is an attempt to make a machine think like a human.

Rolston, on the other hand, defines it as: “Computer-based solutions to the most complex problems through application processes that resemble human reasoning”[9].

Therefore, it can be said that it involves programming computers with highly sophisticated applications that enable them to solve complex problems, which a human could solve, but in a faster and more precise manner.

Nighit also perceives artificial intelligence as: “The behavior of a device, which if performed by a human, would be called intelligence.”[10]

According to this definition, it can be said that computers exhibit intelligence similar to humans. However, Waterman suggests that the approach to artificial intelligence represents knowledge as sets of symbols that represent problem concepts. In the realm of artificial intelligence, these symbols are typically sequences of characters that represent real-world concepts[11].

From this, it can be inferred that artificial intelligence refers to programs built on a knowledge base composed of symbols that a computer relies on to perform assigned tasks, providing results based on these symbols to the user.

Moreover, artificial intelligence can be defined as one of the most important modern sciences resulting from the convergence of technological revolution in the fields of systems, computers, and automation on one hand, and logic, mathematics, languages, and psychology on the other. It aims to understand the nature of human intelligence by creating programs for computers capable of simulating intelligent human behavior, equipping the computer with these programs that enable it to solve a problem or make a decision in a given situation. Therefore, artificial intelligence involves computer programs finding a way to solve a problem or arrive at an appropriate decision by utilizing various reasoning processes that the program has been fed with.[12].

Moreover, artificial intelligence is a science and technology based on scientific disciplines such as computer science, psychology, linguistics, mathematics, and engineering. Its aim is to develop computers that can think and move. When the first computer was introduced, it played a significant role in performing complex calculations in a very short period of time and storing vast amounts of information. Through advancements, it has been developed to simulate human behavior, enabling the emergence of important applications such as expert systems[13].

From the previous definitions, we can conclude that artificial intelligence is a science built on mathematical principles, hardware, and software that are integrated into computers. These computers perform various tasks and operations that humans can do but differ in terms of speed and accuracy in finding solutions to complex problems.

3. The historical evolution of artificial intelligence:

In the mid-20th century, a few scientists began exploring a new approach to building intelligent machines based on recent discoveries in neuroscience, a new mathematical theory of information, and the development of the field of automation control. With the invention of the digital computer, a machine capable of simulating human computational thinking processes was created. The modern field of artificial intelligence was established at a conference held at Dartmouth College in the summer of 1956, where the attendees became leaders in artificial intelligence research for several decades, particularly Herbert Simon, Allen Newell, and Marvin Lee Minsky, who founded artificial intelligence laboratories at MIT and Carnegie Mellon University. They and their students wrote programs that amazed most people, as the computer solved algebraic problems,

By the mid-1960s, these research efforts began to receive generous funding from the US Department of Defense, and the researchers made the following predictions:

In 1965, Herbert Simon predicted that within twenty years, machines would be able to perform any work that humans can do.

In 1967, Marvin Minsky predicted that within a single generation, the problem of creating artificial intelligence would be largely solved.

However, they failed to realize the difficulty of some of the problems they encountered. In 1974, in response to criticism directed towards artificial intelligence and the continuous pressure from Congress to fund more productive projects, both the US and British governments cut funding for exploratory research in the field of artificial intelligence. This marked the first setback in artificial intelligence research.

The early 1980s, artificial intelligence research witnessed a new awakening with the commercial success of expert systems. Expert systems are artificial intelligence programs that simulate the knowledge and analytical skills of one or more human experts. By 1985, the profits from artificial intelligence research in the market reached over one billion dollars. Governments resumed funding, but after a few years, the collapse of the Lisp Machine market, a programming language, led to another setback in 1987. This setback lasted longer.

In the 1990s and early 21st century, artificial intelligence achieved even greater success, being utilized in logistics, data mining, medical diagnosis, and many other fields across the technology industry. This success can be attributed to several factors, including the immense power of today’s computers, increased focus on solving specific subproblems, the creation of new relationships within the field of artificial intelligence and other related fields in tackling similar problems. Moreover, researchers started committing to strong mathematical approaches and rigorous scientific standards[14]“

• Difference between Human Intelligence and Artificial Intelligence:

Human intelligence is considered one of the most distinguishing features of humans compared to other creatures.

1. Definition of Human Intelligence:

According to Christopher Evans, it is “the ability of humans to adapt to the variables they interact with, and the greater the human’s ability to adapt, the more intelligent they are.”

“It is also defined as “the ability of humans to derive new facts and arrive at innovative solutions to complex problems by leveraging their existing knowledge and information. This is achieved through their ability to analyze and compare. Humans are considered intelligent when the validity of the facts and solutions they arrive at is proven. Human intelligence is the result of learning and experience, in addition to the mental capabilities possessed by humans.”

Based on the above, human intelligence can be described as the knowledge and experiences inherent in humans, acquired through learning and experience, and developed and enhanced along with the mental capabilities bestowed upon humans by Allah.[15].

1. The Difference between Artificial Intelligence and Human Intelligence:

The difference between artificial intelligence and human intelligence can be illustrated through the following table[16]:

Artificial Intelligence	Human Intelligence	Characteristics
Low	High	Ability to use senses: Eyes, touch, etc.
Low	High	Imagination ability
Low	High	Ability to learn from experience
Low	High	Adaptation ability
Low	High	Ability to handle intelligence acquisition
Low	High	Ability to acquire various sources of information
Low	High	Ability to acquire a large amount of external information
High	Low	Ability for complex calculations
High	Low	Ability to transfer information
High	Low	Ability to perform calculations quickly and accurately

Source: Najm Aboud Najm, Knowledge Management, Concepts, Strategies, and Processes. Al-Warraq Publishing and Distribution, 2nd Edition, Amman, 2008, p.377.

From the above table, we can reduce the difference between human intelligence and artificial intelligence. Human intelligence is characterized by the ability to sense, imagine, and be creative. On the other hand, artificial intelligence excels in complex calculations and the easy and rapid transfer of information, while these tasks require effort and time for humans.

• Reasons for the Interest in Artificial Intelligence:

Given the significant importance of artificial intelligence, it has led to the emergence of several reasons for the interest in it. Some of these reasons can be mentioned as follows[17]:

1. Establishing an organized knowledge database:

This involves efficiently storing information, allowing employees in the organization, especially those in knowledge departments, to access knowledge and learn experimental rules that are not available in books or other sources of information.

1. Preserving information and knowledge associated with artificial intelligence:

This allows organizations to protect their proprietary knowledge from leakage or loss due to employees leaving the organization through resignation, transfer, or death.

1. Creating a mechanism not subject to human emotions:

Artificial intelligence can perform tasks without being influenced by human emotions such as anxiety, fatigue, or exhaustion, particularly when it comes to physically and mentally challenging work.

1. Generating and finding solutions to complex problems:

Artificial intelligence can analyze and address complex problems in a timely and efficient manner.

Secondly: Applications of Artificial Intelligence in International Relations and Warfare

International security and foreign affairs have become the latest focal points for innovation and the application of artificial intelligence. Artificial intelligence is regarded as having a profound impact on how states manage their foreign affairs. It plays a significant role in influencing the balance of global power, as well as the determinants of power in general. The possession of advanced artificial intelligence and its technologies grants a state significant power and superior capabilities to influence the world. This includes exercising influence, domination, and exerting control over political, economic, military, security, and other levels.

• Artificial Intelligence and International Decision-Making:

Artificial intelligence has begun to play a pivotal role in the policymaking process, interstate relations, and decision-making, as the diplomatic approach has changed according to a set of political determinants and institutional interactions within the political system. For instance, early risk prediction, enhanced levels of multidimensional and deeper knowledge, and the ability to construct different models and alternatives for decisions and policies. The rise of artificial intelligence will lead to the automatic adjustment of mechanisms and balances of these active forces. In the world of international relations, the race for power depends on the abundance of information and its effective utilization, in addition to the element of speed. The more technologically advanced a state becomes,[18].

Information warfare has emerged between nations through the actions of global economic powers targeting specific countries to steal their secrets and exploit the obtained information to inflict economic damage on those nations[19].

Even more concerning is the possibility of infiltrating societies through artificial intelligence techniques. A foreign state can utilize artificial intelligence systems to identify the political and social orientations of individuals who oppose it on social media platforms. They can attempt to link geographically isolated groups that adopt similar ideologies and push them to adopt specific political positions that may harm the interests and national security of the state[20].

• The Use of Artificial Intelligence in Warfare:

There is a significant risk associated with the military systems supported by artificial intelligence and the decision-making processes led by armies, as they will have a significant impact on international conflicts. Long-standing international agreements and treaties (such as the Geneva Conventions)[21]that address foreign policy and warfare between nations and regulate the use of weapons and the limitation of proliferation were not designed to apply to a global system equipped with these intelligent technologies. The weapons that rely on artificial intelligence were not even conceived during the time these agreements were formulated. If the concern lies in states possessing such dangerous weapons, the greater concern arises when non-state terrorist organizations acquire them[22].

The competition for artificial intelligence has prompted the development of new and advanced generations of various types of weapons that surpass the speed of sound and light. These weapons rely heavily on lasers and humanoid robots in their production and operation. This has ignited a global arms race among major powers, particularly the United States, Russia, and China. In recent years, these countries have developed new conventional and non-conventional destructive weapons, advanced nuclear weapons, long-range ballistic missiles, unmanned aerial vehicles, and air defense systems[23].

Some authors argue that robots can be better than human soldiers in certain circumstances and can exhibit more humanity on the battlefield than humans. Autonomous robot platforms may potentially reduce casualties among non-combatants or civilians due to their ability to adhere better to the laws of war compared to human soldiers. They can gather data and information from various sources at an extremely rapid pace before engaging in combat.

Artificial intelligence can also be utilized in information warfare, information gathering, and on the battlefield through various actions, including:

• Aerial operations to destroy command and control centers.
• Special operations to disrupt communication lines.
• Electronic jamming of enemy communications.
• Introducing deceptive targets into enemy radars through electronic deception.
• Penetrating the adversary’s computer networks and injecting them with inaccurate information.

There are various military applications that fall under the category of artificial intelligence technologies used in warfare, including:

1. Drones: Drones can be divided into three main categories based on their purpose in warfare: aerial drones, ground drones, and maritime drones.
2. Drone Swarms: They represent a more advanced form of artificial intelligence, where a large number of small drones are developed, capable of dispersing and moving together in an automated manner to carry out combat missions.
3. Autonomous Robotic Systems: Several types of autonomous robotic systems have been developed to perform essential patrol duties[24].
   • International Responsibility and the Uses of Artificial Intelligence Technologies
     • International Responsibility

We will briefly divide our presentation on international responsibility by addressing the distinction between traditional responsibility and risk-based responsibility (objective responsibility).

1. Traditional International Responsibility:

In the linguistic definition of responsibility, it refers to a general situation or attribute of someone who is held accountable for an issue that falls under their jurisdiction and is legally bound to rectify the error committed against others (according to the law).

The linguistic meaning of responsibility falls under the category of questioning, inquiring, or reproaching. Responsibility can mean reproach, and it is like being asked about something or concerning something. As for questioning, it signifies the summons of knowledge. The summons of knowledge is answered orally, and the hand substitutes for the tongue in writing and signaling. The summons of money is answered by the hand, and the oath or pledge substitutes for the tongue.

As for the terminological definition of international responsibility, it has varied, including the following definition:

Provided by Salah Hashem: “International responsibility is a set of legal rules that impose obligations on individuals under international law to prevent and reduce harm that may be caused to another international person, as well as the obligation to rectify any damage caused to others.” Thus, responsibility has a preventive nature to avoid harm and a remedial nature to rectify harm[25].

In his terminological definition of international responsibility, Dr. Salah al-Din Amer states: “International responsibility is the set of legal rules that govern any act or incident attributed to individuals under international law, resulting in harm to another person under international law, and the resulting primary obligation to provide compensation.”[26]According to the prevailing juristic opinion, two elements must be present to establish traditional international responsibility:

• A subjective element involves an action contrary to an international commitment (the state committing an unlawful international act “element of fault”), resulting in harm to another state “element of harm”[27].
• A personal element is used to prove the commitment of the state or an international legal entity.[28]
• Violating the international commitment of one of the international law entities “element of attribution or causality”

1. International responsibility: (based on risks and bearing consequences)

Although the above represents traditional responsibility consisting of three pillars (fault, harm, and causality), when studying artificial intelligence with its various techniques that could potentially be used for the economic, technological, and military of states – which is a pure right of the states, there may be resulting harm to other states. Here, we have moved from the frame of traditional responsibility to the field of responsibility based on risks and bearing the consequences (objective responsibility)[29], which is built on only two pillars, namely harm and causality.

Dr. Mohammed Talat Al-Ghanaimi defined responsibility based on risk as:

(It is a legal situation in which the state attributed to it is obliged to compensate for the harm that affects another state or one of its nationals as a result of this action or activity)[30].

And Dr. Ahmed Abu Al-Wafa defined it as: “It is the responsibility that falls on the state because of the damages resulting from legitimate activities, but they involve many risks, regardless of the presence of negligence or error on the part of the state, it is responsibility without fault for the risk[31]. Therefore, this theory is an application of the principle of ‘harming by benefiting’ – meaning that as the state benefits and gains from its activity, it should bear the consequences and risks of this activity, even if it is legitimate.”[32].

From these previous definitions, it becomes apparent to us that the basis of responsibility based on risks is actually causing harm, regardless of the error. As we mentioned, it is the right of every state to use its capabilities[33]and artificial intelligence technology, which achieves its interests domestically and internationally in all fields as a purpose of the United Nations’ goals. However, this is not an absolute matter for the state, but there is a restriction on the freedom of these states, which is to act in good faith and not to harm other states, or else it would be subject to penalties or sanctions[34].

1. Artificial Intelligence Technologies and International Responsibility:

While artificial intelligence technology serves the decision-maker and facilitates government work, it also creates competitors and partners influencing policymaking. Foremost among these are technology companies that own artificial intelligence technologies, which will have significant influence at the economic, political, and security levels, and their role in intervening in public affairs, whether they are national or non-national companies. The impact of non-national companies will undoubtedly be more dangerous, as issues of sovereignty and national interest are at stake, especially if these companies’ become tools in the hands of their home countries to exert influence on other states’ policies and decisions, much like the influence exerted by multinational companies[35].

A report issued by Chatham House (the Royal Institute of International Affairs)[36]In June 2018, titled “Artificial Intelligence and International Affairs: Anticipated Disruption,” attempts to measure the impact of artificial intelligence on international policies in the short and medium term, as well as its effects on global security, in diverse areas such as military affairs economic and humanitarian security[37].

The report states that the impact of artificial intelligence technology in the political field, characterized by high degrees of complexity in human relationships, is difficult to imagine replacing executives in decision-making in the short term. However, this technology plays the role of an assistant to decision-makers in making decisions quickly and efficiently. The mechanism of artificial intelligence technology lies in its ability to structure a large amount of data and retain it in a manner superior to the human mind, but it may malfunction if something unfamiliar to its programming is encountered, unlike the human mind. Therefore, each works as a complement to the other.

The report highlights three main roles of artificial intelligence in the field of global politics, as follows[38]:

• Analytical role: By analyzing databases and generating results aligned with programmed models, artificial intelligence contributes to monitoring the implementation of treaties related to nuclear or chemical weapons control, for example. Given the increased availability of current data, whether commercial or industrial, artificial intelligence can crystallize and analyze it to provide decision-makers with appropriate insights.
• Predictive role: Artificial intelligence can provide decision-makers with future potential outcomes based on analyzed data. For instance, through specific applications, decision-makers in international affairs can develop models for complex negotiations and build positions and strategies for other actors. With accumulated knowledge and advancing application programming, artificial intelligence can enhance the accuracy of predictions[39].
• Executive role: Modern logistical applications play an undeniable role in shaping international politics. Unmanned aerial vehicles are widespread in the weapons sector, and self-driving cars are present in commercial markets. All these advancements have repercussions on global politics and economy, both ethically and in terms of the speed of dissemination and response to risks.

When it comes to the economic aspect, the most alarming issue is the use of artificial intelligence technologies in military operations and the resulting human and material damages and losses for countries. Considering the significant interest displayed by armies in developing self-operating systems, there is a growing concern that humans may become isolated from the decision to use force to the extent that the decision of life and death is left to sensing devices and software in practice[40].

Modern technologies have brought about a tremendous leap in the field of modern armed conflict management, evolving from the invention of carriages and gunpowder to aerial warfare and nuclear weapons, and now to military robots or autonomous weapons. This has led to a new generation of weapons and methods that rely on artificial intelligence and cyber warfare tools[41].

The use of artificial intelligence technologies and applications in weapons (autonomous weapons)[42]That implies machine operators, without any human intervention, make decisive decisions on the battlefield. This radical change in the way wars is waged may have potential ramifications. It is therefore necessary to warn against the dangers of using such weapons unless there is assurance[43]that their use complies with international humanitarian law. How can autonomous weapons distinguish between combatants and civilians? Will advanced technology make them better than soldiers at identifying military targets? Who will be held accountable if international humanitarian law is violated through the use of these weapons?[44]

In this case, we face a dilemma regarding how to distinguish between civilians and combatants. International humanitarian law imposes a responsibility on the warring parties to differentiate between civilian and military targets, as well as between civilians and military personnel, and between combatants and wounded military personnel, according to Article 48 of the First Additional Protocol of the Geneva Conventions of 1977[45]. Doubts arise about the ability of autonomous weapons to make such distinctions between civilians and combatants, let alone between military personnel and injured military personnel. It is observed that deploying autonomous weapons in battles taking place in populated areas makes it difficult for these weapons to differentiate between the two categories, rendering their use in such illegitimate cases. The international responsibility lies with the state that employs such autonomous weapons.

In a report issued by Chatham House (Royal Institute of International Affairs) in June 2018, the report mentioned artificial intelligence and the future of warfare. It highlighted the significant increase in the use of unmanned aerial vehicles (drones) in both military and commercial environments. Due to the high cost of developing artificial intelligence, the competitiveness of the military sectors in development areas has declined, leaving the field to commercial sectors that have massive investments in this field. The report provided several examples, such as drones and self-driving cars. It pointed out the early interest in developing self-driving cars in 2004, and the project has since evolved significantly to be marketed in commercial markets. In contrast, Military vehicles did not receive the same level of attention due to the military sector’s inability to compete with the commercial sector in developing autonomous programs. Meanwhile, spending on information and communication technology and self-driving cars ranks first among the priorities of the commercial sector, attributed to the high competitiveness in the commercial market. Consequently, it is difficult to assess the future development of warfare in the short term due to the military sector’s weak performance in developing artificial intelligence, as well as the dominance of commercial companies. Terrorists could potentially acquire self-driving cars or drones before armed forces can obtain them, and they could use them in terrorist operations and attacks against civilians, government institutions, and sovereign entities,

Thirdly: The United Nations and its stance on artificial intelligence technologies in the field of international relations.

1. The United Nations and Artificial Intelligence in Times of War

The United Nations’ interest in the use of artificial intelligence technologies extends beyond the military domain to all areas of international affairs. The importance of artificial intelligence technologies and their applications in warfare and armed conflicts cannot be overlooked. A brief overview of this dangerous field requires a quick presentation of the United Nations’ approach to weapons used in times of war through conventions that prohibit or restrict the use of certain conventional weapons that can be deemed excessively injurious or have indiscriminate effects[46].

The Convention’s preamble emphasizes that the contracting parties should refrain from threatening or using force against the autonomy, territorial integrity, or political independence of any state in their international relations, contrary to the purposes of the United Nations.

According to the principles of international law, parties involved in armed conflicts have the right to choose methods and means of warfare. However, this right is not absolute, as the use of weapons, projectiles, equipment, and methods of warfare that cause excessive harm or unnecessary suffering is prohibited in armed conflicts. The Convention also states that the United Nations General Assembly and the United Nations Disarmament Commission may consider expanding the prohibitions and restrictions outlined in the Convention and its protocols[47].

Implicitly within the Convention’s preamble, it is understood that it allows for the regulation of any future weapons, including those based on artificial intelligence, which cause harm to other countries and their citizens, falling under the scope of the Convention.

One important feature of the Convention is its ability to expand and respond to the development of new weapons or changes in the conduct of warfare. When the Convention was adopted in 1980, it included three protocols (Protocol I to III), and subsequently, two new protocols were adopted by the States Parties. The first is the 1995 Protocol IV, which relates to blinding laser weapons, and the second is the 2003 Protocol V, which relates to explosive remnants of war.

The application of the Convention has also broadened to cover all types of armed conflicts. When the Convention was adopted in 1980, it applied only to international armed conflicts along with its first three protocols. However, through its amended formulation in 1996 during the first Review Conference of the States Parties, it also became applicable to non-international armed conflicts[48].

In an amendment to Article 1 of the Convention in December 2001, a joint provision with the Geneva Conventions was added, stating that the Convention and its protocols do not apply to situations of internal disturbances and tensions, such as riots, isolated acts of violence, and other similar acts, as they are not considered armed conflicts. We have reservations about this text in light of the disturbances and armed violence taking place in our contemporary world by terrorist groups such as the Islamic State in Syria, the Houthis in Yemen, and other terrorist groups whose actions can be considered part of an armed conflict where both traditional and technologically advanced weapons, including those based on artificial intelligence, are used.

A report by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) on the activities of the United Nations in the field of artificial intelligence in 2019 highlighted the position regarding armed conflicts. It stated that artificial intelligence technologies are not only used in weaponry but can also be employed in mediation efforts during armed conflicts. These technologies are utilized to assess the current situation and identify available opportunities for mediation and conflict resolution.

Digital technologies have the potential to significantly enhance the efficiency and opportunities for mediation efforts.

Digital technologies enhance the volume, diversity, and speed of information that can be collected for conflict analysis. They also provide innovative means for managing and organizing this information. However, it is important to complement data derived from digital sources with other information sources to ensure a more realistic analysis that contributes to the success of the mediation process in conflict resolution.

2. The United Nations and Artificial Intelligence in peacetime

In a report by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU)[49]titled “UN Activities on Artificial Intelligence in 2019,”[50], it was mentioned that there is a joint effort between the ITU, and 32 UN agencies and entities called “AI for Good Global Summit Partnership for the Benefit of All.” The meeting took place on September 24, 2018, at the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) headquarters in New York. A report on UN activities related to artificial intelligence was prepared in October 2018.

The report provided information on the diverse and innovative activities related to artificial intelligence within the United Nations system and the ways in which artificial intelligence is used in combating hunger, mitigating climate change, and advancing universal health coverage. It included examples of how UN agencies deal with artificial intelligence to improve disease response, monitor real-time energy usage, and facilitate the transition to sustainable smart cities[51].

In the field of health, there is close collaboration between the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and the World Health Organization (WHO)[52]. to coordinate efforts in health-related areas and the evaluation of artificial intelligence algorithms for health purposes. The ITU continues its extended cooperation with active healthcare entities by supporting the development of high-level electronic health devices. Participating organizations include UN entities, standard-setting bodies, academic and research institutions, and industrial establishments. The specialized team within the ITU’s Telecommunication Standardization Sector, responsible for artificial intelligence for health purposes, partners with the WHO to establish a common methodology for evaluating artificial intelligence solutions for health.

Likewise, in the field of agriculture, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), a United Nations agency, emphasizes the importance of artificial intelligence. The United Nations recognizes the need to extensively utilize artificial intelligence to develop a comprehensive vision at both the local and global levels. Artificial intelligence is used to predict unexpected events, threats, and crises, enabling countries and the United Nations to address challenges such as hunger, climate change, and migration before they escalate into crises. This includes early detection and prevention of natural disasters, as well as mitigation efforts, thereby avoiding social conflicts and economic risks.

Due to the importance of artificial intelligence, the FAO consistently highlights that it is a broad field of knowledge that should not be viewed solely as a tool or a threat. It is an area that requires enhanced learning and training to understand the technology, its effects, and the anticipated scenarios for future use. By utilizing artificial intelligence algorithms based on data (evidence and observations)[53], faster and more accurate data can be obtained compared to human capabilities. This data can be used to improve precision, response time, decision support, classification, prediction, and more, ultimately benefiting humanity as a whole[54].

In March 2019, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) published a new report on “Promising Technologies and Their Use in Disaster Risk Reduction and Management.” The report highlights how these technologies are currently refining processes by rapidly disseminating sensitive information, improving understanding of disaster causes, enhancing early warning systems, facilitating rapid damage assessment, and adding to the knowledge base of social behavior and post-crisis economic effects. The report also emphasizes the importance of regulation, training, and expanding partnerships[55], The International Labor Organization (ILO)[56]. has also conducted research on the economic aspects of artificial intelligence and its implications for the future of work. The current wave of technological change, based on advances in artificial intelligence, has raised concerns about widespread job losses and increased inequality. A comparison between the capabilities of individuals and artificial intelligence may result in an unfair assessment, as businesses and capital owners seek high productivity at low costs to maximize profits[57].

Therefore, the ILO strives to develop forward-looking strategies for easier adaptation and to provide training for workers in emerging skills to meet the demands of the labor market in response to the developments brought about by artificial intelligence technologies.

In a report by Chatham House (the Royal Institute of International Affairs) in June 2018, which focuses on artificial intelligence and the future of warfare, the report discusses how artificial intelligence technologies prompt economists to reconsider their impact on several key areas: production[58], employment, international trade, and development, and the positive and negative effects of artificial intelligence on each of them[59].

In the field of employment or the labor market, economic studies indicate that artificial intelligence contributes to increasing unemployment rates among workers. Some economists call for government intervention to redistribute the profits that companies generate from artificial intelligence among those who have lost their jobs. However, other economists argue that technology reduces jobs, not work, and therefore creates new employment opportunities that were not previously available[60].

The report also addressed that in the field of international trade and development, artificial intelligence (AI) will create a significant gap between developed and developing countries. Developed countries possess highly skilled labor and high wages, so the effects of AI will somewhat impact their workforce and economy. On the other hand, developing countries, with low-skilled labor, will be greatly affected by AI. They have limited options and can only enter agreements with foreign investors who commit to allocating proportions for training the workforce, improving the country’s productivity, and transferring technology[61].

Furthermore, the advancement of AI will contribute to reducing production costs within developed countries, leading to a decreased reliance on manufacturing in developing countries. This will result in reduced demand for migrant labor, as well as a decrease in remittances from foreign workers to their home countries, which in turn will lower the national output of these countries[62].

In line with the International Telecommunication Union’s (ITU) interest in artificial intelligence, the specialized group for the Telecommunication Standardization Sector on ‘Environmental Efficiency for Artificial Intelligence and Emerging Technologies’ (FG-AI4EE)[63], was established during its meeting in Geneva on May 22, 2019. FG-AI4EE will identify standardization needs to develop a sustainable approach for artificial intelligence and other emerging technologies. It will serve as an open platform for stakeholders, such as industry representatives, regulators, policymakers, researchers, engineers, practitioners, business owners, service providers, platform providers, and network operators, as well as international organizations, industry forums, and associations, to exchange knowledge, best practices, and lessons learned in this field[64].

The telecommunications standardization sector also pays attention to the environment, climate change, and the circular economy. It recognizes the significant role that information and communication technologies (ICT) play in addressing global challenges related to climate change and sustainable development. This includes awareness about the role of ICT in tackling environmental challenges, including climate change, and promoting innovative solutions that rely on raising ICT in environmental issues. It also involves establishing environmentally friendly standards concerning ICT to support a sustainable future in areas such as assessing the environmental impact of ICT technologies, adapting to and mitigating the effects of climate change, and serving the interests of the international community[65].

The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) will host the sixth World Telecommunication Development Conference/Forum on Information and Communication Technologies (WTDC/ICT) in 2021. The aim of this conference is to facilitate the creation of a shared vision among policymakers regarding emerging issues related to the emergence of wired and wireless communication services and ICT technologies. Artificial intelligence (AI) will be one of the subtopics under discussion[66].

The topic of artificial intelligence is of great importance and requires further research, study, and international collaboration to maximize the benefits of this technology for the benefit of all countries worldwide. This can be achieved through the establishment of specialized international agreements in these fields and their applications.

Conclusion

In conclusion and after discussing the impact of artificial intelligence technologies on international relations, it can be said that AI technologies have become a reality in our daily lives, both domestically and internationally. They play a significant role in various areas of international cooperation, including trade, economy, society, military, and politics. Artificial intelligence is a double-edged sword with numerous drawbacks and advantages. To mitigate any negative consequences, the international community must exercise caution and prepare to deal with the effects that AI’s diverse applications will have on societies and global economies. Moreover, it is essential to recognize the bright side of AI as it contributes to improving human life in multiple aspects. Therefore, maintaining a connection between AI and humanity is crucial. In our research, we have explored the nature of artificial intelligence, defined as the ability of machines and digital computers to perform specific tasks that mimic those carried out by intelligent beings. We have also examined various types of artificial intelligence.

Then we discussed the applications of artificial intelligence, including those used in our daily lives such as gaming and smart shopping, as well as those used in international relations and times of war, such as drones and various autonomous weapons. Additionally, artificial intelligence technologies assist in making international decisions and predicting problems and disasters that have a significant impact on international decision-making. We also addressed the international responsibility for the use of artificial intelligence technologies, where we studied the nature of traditional international responsibility and risk-based responsibility, in which we found that international responsibility for the use of artificial intelligence technologies can be adapted as a risk- based and consequential responsibility. It is an act and a project,

Finally, we moved on to the United Nations’ position on artificial intelligence technologies and their peaceful use during times of war. We discussed the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, which addressed traditional weapons and their resulting harms and how to deal with them. We also saw that the provisions of this Convention can be applied to both traditional weapons and weapons based on artificial intelligence technologies, as both have the same destructive effects. However, the effects of modern weapons relying on artificial intelligence technologies are much more severe and dangerous. After addressing all these topics, we arrived at a set of results and recommendations.

Results:

Artificial intelligence plays a central role in policymaking, decision-making, and organizing relations between countries, giving precedence and priority to the more advanced countries in the field of artificial intelligence technologies.

Artificial intelligence technologies assist countries in making important decisions in emergency situations, as they have significant predictive capabilities and the ability to quickly make decisions that can mitigate these risks.

Artificial intelligence technologies can be used to infiltrate societies, identify political and social inclinations of individuals and countries, and exploit divisions through social media platforms, adopting specific political and intellectual orientations that harm the national security of those countries.

The Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, which prohibits or restricts the use of certain conventional weapons, can be considered excessive in terms of harm or indiscriminate impact. Its scope is not limited to traditional weapons but extends to emerging technologies, implying the possibility of including weapons based on artificial intelligence technologies within the framework of the convention.

All United Nations bodies are concerned with studying artificial intelligence and its applications in various areas of international cooperation, both in times of peace and war, including fields such as communications, health, agriculture, and labor, aiming to establish international legal frameworks that harness the benefits of these technologies and mitigate their negative effects in the field of international cooperation.

That analyzing databases and producing results consistent with the models that were programmed into it, such as monitoring the implementation of treaties controlling nuclear or chemical weapons. As a result of the increase in current data, whether commercial or industrial, artificial intelligence will contribute to crystallizing and analyzing it to give it to the decision maker so that he can take the appropriate decision.

Artificial intelligence can provide…Countries with results that are likely to occur in the future, according to the data he analyzed, for example, through certain species of applications Countries can come up with models for complex negotiations, and then…The positions and steps of other actors are built on it. With the accumulation of knowledge and the increasing sophistication of application programming, artificial intelligence can make predictions more accurate.

Modern logistics applications play an undeniable role in…relations international. In the arms sector, drones are widespread, and in commercial markets, there are self-driving cars, and all of the above has had an impact on the policy path and economics universal, both morally and in terms of speed spread and the response for risks.

Recommendations:

Include the study of artificial intelligence on the list of important topics that require further legal study to develop binding texts that restrict the use of artificial intelligence technologies for non-peaceful purposes.

Activate the role of international and regional organizations in raising information awareness about artificial intelligence through organizing forums, conferences, and workshops with the aim of awareness raising among individuals and society about the importance of considering the ethical dimension of artificial intelligence and robotics.

a global international agreement under the auspices of the United Nations that includes binding legal texts for all member states, both advanced and less advanced, to develop a comprehensive policy that encompasses all ethical aspects of artificial intelligence and imposes strict penalties on non-compliant states .

Enhance cooperation between official bodies, government entities, and specialized sectors in the field of artificial intelligence ethics worldwide to exchange experiences

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[1]Manal Muhammad Ramadan, International Relations in Islam, University of Gaza, Palestine, 2014. Iugaz.eda. ps/ Mashy/ courses. The: Expound by Konstantin Site. Consulté le 11/06/2023, at 13:00.

[2] Muhammad Haqqi Tawfiq Principles of International Relations, Wael Publishing House, Damascus, third edition, 2006, p. 14.

[3] Lectures delivered by Dr. Seyyed Mohammad Tabatabai, Head of the Department of International Relations at the Faculty of Law and Political Science, Allameh Tabatabai University, Tehran, Iran, 2016, to doctoral students in the Department of International Relations.

[4]Paul Willinks, International Relations a Very Short Introduction. See: Lubna Imad Turki, Hindawi Foundation for Education and Culture, Al-Nasr City 2013, p. 9.

[5]Mansour Milad Younis, Introduction to the Study of International Relations, 1st edition, Saudi Arabia: Nasser University, 1991, p. 7.

[6] Anwar Muhammad Faraj, The Joy of Realism Theory in International Relations, a critical comparative study in light of contemporary theories, Kurdistan Center for Strategic Studies, Al-Salmaniyah, Iraq, 2007, p. 24.

[7] Essam Abdel Shafi, The Concept of International Relations, The Problem of Definition, Egyptian Institute for Political and Strategic Studies, Egypt – Cairo 2016, p. 6.

[8] Manal Muhammad Al-Kurdi and Jalal Ibrahim Al-Abd, introduction to management information systems, basic concepts and applications. New University House, out of print, Alexandria, 2003, p. 364.

[9] Ahmed Fawzi Molokhia, Management Information Systems. Alexandria Book Center, out of print, Alexandria, 2009, p. 274.

[10] Alaa Abdel Razzaq Mohammed Al Salmi, Decision Support Systems. Wael Publishing House, 1st edition, Amman, 2005, p. 132.

[11] Evran Turpan, translated by Sorour and Ali Ibrahim Sorour, management support systems, decision support systems and experience systems. Mars Publishing House, out of print, Riyadh 2000, p. 580

[12] Ibrahim Al-Khalouk Al-Malkawi, Knowledge Management – Practices and Concepts. Al-Warraq Publishing and Distribution, Jordan Edition, 2007, pp. 216-217.

[13] Absorbent Cotton Company -. A memorandum submitted as part of the requirements for obtaining a master’s degree in economic sciences, specializing in organization management, Faculty of Economic, Commercial and Management Sciences, M’hamed Bougara University – Boumerdes – Algeria, 2010-2011, p. 38, adapted.

[14] http:// ar -Wikipedia-org/wiki/consulté on 12/29/2014 at 13:30

[15] Naeem Ibrahim Al-Zaher, Knowledge Management, Jadara for the Arabic Book and the Modern World of Books. 1st edition, Irbid, Amman 2009, p. 233.

[16] Najm Abboud Najm, knowledge management, concepts, strategies and operations. Al-Warraq Publishing and Distribution, 2nd edition, Amman, 2008, p. 377.

[17] Abdul Sattar Al-Ali, et al., Introduction to Knowledge Management. Dar Al-Masirah for Publishing, Distribution and Printing, 2nd edition, Amman 2009, pp. 198-199.

[18] Abu Al-Ala Atifi Hassanein, The impact of artificial intelligence on diplomacy and international relations. An article in the Egyptian newspaper Al-Diyar, 2019, obtained through the link: http://www.eldyar.net/show66854, accessed on 06/14/2023 at 8:42.

[19] Enas Abdullah Al-Naqrouz, Information Warfare. Research published in the Libraries and Information Centers Conference

In a changing digital environment, during the period 10/29/2013, p. 223.

[20] A report by the Future Center for Advanced Research and Studies. Issue No. 27, October 2018, obtained through the link:

https://futureuae.com/ar-AE/Release/ReleaseArticle/685

[21] The Four Geneva Conventions of 1949, obtained through the link:

https://www.icrc.org/ar/doc/war-and-law/treaties-customary-law/genevaconventionsoverview-geneva-conventions.htm

[22] Abu El-Ela Atifi Hassanein, The impact of artificial intelligence on diplomacy and international relations. Article in Al-Diyar newspaper, Egypt: 2019, obtained through the link: http://www.eldyar.net/show66854.

[23] Khadija Muhammad Darar, Ethics of Artificial Intelligence and Robotics. Analytical study, research published in the International Journal of Library and Information Sciences, Volume 6, Issue 3, September 2019, p. 247.

[24] Report of the Future Center for Advanced Research and Studies, Issue 27, October 2018

[25] Salah Hashem, international responsibility for compromising the safety of the marine environment. – Doctoral dissertation – Cairo University in 1991 – p. 76.

[26] Salah El-Din Amer, Introduction to the Study of Public International Law. 2002 edition, Dar Al Nahda Al Arabiya, p. 726.

[27] Muhammad Safi Youssef, public international law. University Book House for Publishing and Distribution, 2018 edition, p. 417.

[28] Mansour bin Khadran Al-Damouk, Principles of Public International Law and its Applications in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Without a publishing house, edition 2003-2004, p. 170.

[29] Al-Din Al-Jilali Bouzid, Dr. Majid Al-Hamwi, mediator in public international law. Dar Al-Shawaf, edition 2003-2004, p. 176.

[30] Muhammad Talaat Al-Ghunaimi, mediator in the peace law. Alexandria, 1982 edition, p. 245.

[31]Ahmed Abu Al-Wafa, mediator in public international law. 2004 edition, Dar Al Nahda Al Arabiya, p. 322.

[32]Muhammad Al Majzoub, mediator in public international law. Beirut, University House, 2003 edition, p. 260.

[33]Article 1 of the United Nations Charter (1945) stipulates a set of goals that the United Nations seeks to achieve.

[34]Abu Al-Khair Ahmed Attia, International Regulatory Law. Dubai Police Academy, Fujairah National Press, 2007 edition, p. 270.

[35]Jamal Sanad Al-Suwaidi, Artificial Intelligence and Politics… Aspects of Influence. Al-Ittihad newspaper, UAE, November 5, 2017.

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[39]M. L. Cummings, Heather M. Roff, Kenneth Cukier, Jacob Parakilas and Hannah Bryce” Artificial intelligence and international affairs: disruption anticipated” Chatham House report, June 2018(b. 2-4)

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[41]Ishaq Al-Ashash, Lethal Autonomous Weapons Regulations in International Law: A Legal Approach to an Internationally Present Problem. Research published in Generation Human Rights magazine, Algeria, No. 30, fifth year 2023, p. 150.

[42]The report “Autonomous Weapons” was published by the International Committee of the Red Cross on 02/09/2013, obtained through the link:

https://www.icrc.org/ar/doc/resources/documents/faq/q-and-a-autonomous-weapons.htm

[43]The International Committee of the Red Cross proposed: the term “autonomous weapons systems” https://www.icrc.org/ar/doc/resources/documents/faq/q-and-a-autonomous-weapons.htm

[44]The report “Autonomous Weapons” published by the International Committee of the Red Cross on September 2, 2013, obtained through the link:

https://www.icrc.org/ar/doc/resources/documents/faq/q-and-a-autonomous-weapons.htm

[45]Additional Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions of 1977. Text of Article 48. Link: https://www.icrc.org/ar/resources/documents/treaty/protocol-i-additional-to-the-geneva-conventions

[46]The 1980 Convention on the Prohibition or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons That May Be Excessively Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate Effects was adopted on October 10, 1980.

[47]Preamble to the 1980 Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons That May Be Deemed to Be Excessively Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate Effects.

[48]Convention on the Prohibition or Restriction of the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons That May Be Deemed to Be Excessively Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate Effects of 1980 Amendment to Article (1/2) December 2001

[49]United Nations Activities on Artificial Intelligence (AI) 2019. https://www.itu.int/dms pub/itu-s/opb/gen/S-GEN-UNACT-2019-1-PDF-E.pdf. b 27

[50]ITU: is the United Nations specialized agency for information and communication technologies- ICTs. Founded in 1865 to facilitate international connectivity in communications networks, we allocate global radio spectrum and satellite orbits, develop the technical standards that ensure networks and technologies seamlessly interconnect, and strive to improve access to ICTs to underserved communities worldwide. ITU’s global membership includes 193 Member States as well as some 900 companies, universities, and international and regional organizations. https://www.itu.int/ar/about/Pages/default.aspx

[51]United Nations Activities on Artificial Intelligence (AI) 2019. https://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-s/opb/gen/S-GEN-UNACT-2019-1-PDF- E.pdf

[52]Report on the implementation of the ITU Strategic Plan and on ITU activities for the period 02/18/2019 ITU Annual Progress Report Document C19/35-A – May 2019, op. cit., p. 68.

[53]A report on the implementation of the Union’s strategic plan and on the Union’s activities for the period 02/18/2019. The Union’s annual progress report, document C19/35, May 2019, op. cit., p. 30.

[54]United Nations Activities on Artificial Intelligence (AI) 2019. https://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-s/opb/gen/S-GEN-UNACT-2019-1-PDF- E.pdf. b 5

[55]For more: Seminar on digital agricultural transformation Rome – Italy (312) June 2019 Food and Agriculture Organization FAO through the link:

http://www.fao.org/about/meetings/digital-agriculture- transformation/ar/ Artificial Intelligence (AI) 2019.

[56]United Nations Activities on https://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-s/opb/gen/S-GEN-UNACT-2019-1-PDF- E.pdf. b 5

[57]Report on the implementation of the ITU Strategic Plan and on ITU activities for the period 02/18/2019 for the ITU Annual Progress Report 10 to 20 June 2019 – Document C19-35 28 May 2019.

[58]The International Labor Organization is an organization founded in 1919 and headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland. After World War II, some amendments were made to the organization’s charter to ensure its independence in work. The organization was linked to the United Nations by concluding an agreement with the Economic and Social Council in implementation of the text of Article 63 of the Charter. United Nations d. Osama Arafat: International Organizations” – Al-Ajada Publishing House, 2018 edition, p. 241.

[59]United Nations Activities on Artificial Intelligence (AI) 2019.

https://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-s/opb/gen/S-GEN-UNACT-2019-1-PDF-E.pdf. b 9

[60]Impact on productivity and output: There is a good chance that AI will bring about a boom in productivity. The changes arising from the development and application of AI may be on par with those resulting from electrification or of computing (b 29).”Artificial intelligence and international affairs: anticipated disruption.

[61]M. L. Cummings, Heather M. Roff, Kenneth Cukier, Jacob Parakilas and Hannah Bryce “Artificial intelligence and international affairs: disruption anticipated” Chatham House report, June 2018 (.b. 32)

[62] Ibid

[63] Ibid

[64]M. L. Cummings, Heather M. Roff, Kenneth Cukier, Jacob Parakilas and Hannah Bryce “Artificial intelligence and international affairs: disruption anticipated” Chatham House report, June 2018 (.b. 32)

[65]ITU-T Study Group 5 is responsible for studies on methodologies for assessing the impacts of ICTs on climate change and publishing guidelines for the use of ICTs in an environmentally sensitive manner. In accordance with the tasks assigned to the Study Group, obtained via rap: Accessed on 06/15/2023 at 16.30.

https://www.itu.int/ar/ITU-T/about/groups/Pages/sg05.aspx

[66]Report of the Focus Group on the Environmental Efficiency of Artificial Intelligence and Other Emerging Technologies (FG-AI4EE) obtained through the link. Accessed on 15/06/2023 at 11.20.:

https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-T/focusgroups/ai4ee/Pages/default.aspx#/ar