The Orientalist output in the field of linguistics  – the work of the French Orientalist William Marçais as a modal

Prepared by the researche : Djamel eddine Baba  – National Centre for Research in Prehistory Anthropology and History (Algeria)

Democratic Arabic Center

Journal of cultural linguistic and artistic studies : Thirty-sixth Issue – June 2025

A Periodical International Journal published by the “Democratic Arab Center” Germany – Berlin

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Abstract

Every branch of knowledge or science has prominent scholars who have influenced it through their efforts, research and activities, leaving clear footprints and disciples from their own and other nations. Since Orientalism has extended over several centuries and included Europe and America, it is difficult to note all those who have had a significant impact on these studies. We have therefore limited ourselves to one of the leading French Orientalists who devoted their lives to Arabic and Orientalist studies.

Marçais’ work in Orientalist linguistics at the time aimed to document and describe the Arabic dialects of North Africa, which were often considered less “pure” or “classical” than literary Arabic. His linguistic analysis contributed to the broader field of Semitic linguistics by analyzing the phonology, morphology, and syntax of these dialects. His work also sought to understand the culture, customs, and social structures of the Maghreb through the study of their languages and oral traditions. Marçais’ work also contributed to French scholarship. It enhanced to the body of knowledge about the regions under French influence.

1. Introduction:

Following direct contact between France and the Arab world from the nineteenth century, beginning with Napoleon’s campaign in Egypt and the subsequent French occupation of Algeria in 1830 and Tunisia in 1881, the number of Arabic studies increased, particularly among French scholars interested in Arabic language and literature. This group of scholars came to be known as Arabists or Orientalists

This scientific endeavour has produced many valuable studies of the Arab East and its heritage, authored by Orientalists. While some of these studies are marred by bias or a lack of resources, they remain an invaluable resource for researchers.

The French contribution to these studies is abundant and varied, sometimes taking the form of collective efforts and at other times distinctive individual efforts. French Orientalism has made many contributions to Orientalist culture, including the scientific and cultural studies and research carried out by William Marçais. French Orientalists took a keen interest in language, and the first chair in Arabic was established at the Collège de France in 1539 (Al-Alusi, 2001, p. 79).

The objectives of his research likely included :

• Descriptive Linguistics : To meticulously document and describe the phonetic, morphological, and syntactic features of the spoken Arabic dialects of the Maghreb (e.g., Tlemcen, the Ulâd Brahîm of Saïda, Takroûna, Tangier).
• Comparative Linguistics : To understand the relationship between these dialects and classical Arabic, as well as their place within the broader Semitic language family.
• Cultural Insight : To gain insights into the culture, social life, and oral traditions of the Maghrebi people through the study of their language and texts.
• Contribution to Linguistic Knowledge : To advance the field of linguistics through the study of previously under-documented language varieties.
• Understanding Diglossia : Specifically, to analyze and articulate the functional separation between the classical and colloquial forms of Arabic, leading to the introduction of the concept of diglossia.

In essence, the problematic lies in the potential for bias and the influence of the colonial context, while the objectives were centered on linguistic description, analysis, and cultural understanding.

There is no doubt that, rather than counting or surveying, this vast and varied field of studies aspires to raise issues and stimulate scholars’ appetite for dialogue and fruitful endeavour. It is from this perspective that we must present this scholar, in order to familiarise ourselves with some of his scientific efforts.

2. About his life :

      William Maçais was born in Rennes, France on 6 November 1872. Most of his family were soldiers in Napoleon’s army and he is of Breton origin. His journey in Orientalism and language began after he obtained a Bachelor’s degree in Law from the University of Rennes. In 1892, he followed his brother[1] George’s example by going to study at the Institute of Oriental Languages in Paris, where he prepared his doctoral thesis on Islamic law under the title : (Inheritance from Parents and Relatives in Islam). This study opened the door to Orientalist studies for him. In his humorous conversation entitled ‘Memories of Rennes and Africa’, he recounts how reading opened his horizons and influenced his future path, particularly through the books ‘History of Semitic Languages’ by Renan and ‘Language’ by Ovlaque ( Canard, 1957, p. 427). In 1894, he joined the Thiers Institution, subsequently moving to the Institute of Languages and Higher Studies. There, he studied under leading Orientalists such as Houdas and Derembourg, devoting himself entirely to the study of classical Arabic and Arabic dialects. In 1898, he obtained certificates in Classical Arabic, Moorish Vernacular, Turkish, and Persian. That same year, the Algerian government appointed him director of the Tlemcen School, a house of culture and place of worship. He seized this opportunity to engage with Tlemcen society through his administrative and exploratory duties, building connections with diverse social groups, including students, sheikhs, farmers, and artisans ( Pouillon, 2008, p. 642).

In 1904, he was appointed director of the Algiers School. In 1909, he became inspector of ethnographic studies. In 1913, he became director of the Higher School of Arabic Language and Literature in Tunis, a position he had founded himself.

During the First World War, he used his expertise to work in Paris, France. Subsequently, he was appointed Professor of Maghrebi Arabic at the Institute of Oriental Languages, while continuing to manage the Institute of Higher Studies. In 1919, he was appointed General Inspector of Andijan education and Professor of Vernacular Dialects. He remained in this position until his retirement in 1942 ( Canard, 1957, p. 428).Despite retiring, he never left North Africa, spending his holidays in Tunisia running the Higher Institute and finishing the work he had begun on studying Maghrebi dialects.

3. His scientific output:

He made his mark on the School of French Orientalism. His books and writings filled the shelves of Arab libraries and Orientalist institutes. These efforts are represented in the writings, articles and scientific reports that he initiated at the beginning of the twentieth century, when he was still young. I would like to highlight his most significant works, which demonstrate his prominent position in Orientalist studies. These are arranged in chronological order and focus primarily on linguistic and literary contributions :

• 1902: He wrote the book Le dialecte arabe parlé à Tlemcen (The Arabic dialect spoken in Tlemcen), containing texts and a glossary alongside a detailed grammatical and linguistic study of the dialect( Marçais, 1902).
• 1903: In collaboration with his brother George, he recorded notes on Arabic inscriptions in Tlemcen in a volume entitled Arabic Monuments of Tlemcen, as he was interested in the city’s architecture.
• Between 1906 and 1908, he conducted a study of the Arabic dialect in Oulad Ibrahim, Saida, for the Memoirs of the Linguistic Society of Paris( Canard, 1957, p. 428).
• In 1911, within the publications of the Institute of Oriental Languages, he presented Arabic texts from Tangier, for which he used the same methodology as for his study of the Tlemcen dialect. For this study, he collected linguistic material based on field visits, including stories and poems with commentary, which describe aspects of social life in Tangier, such as games, traditions, customs and rituals( Marçais, Textes arabes de Tanger (Transcriptions, Traduction annotée, Glossaire), 1911, p. 3).
• Between 1903 and 1914, he translated Sahih al-Bukhari into four volumes in collaboration with his teacher Houdas as part of the publications of the Institute of Oriental Languages.
• In 1925: He published Arabic texts from Takrouna, a small area in the Tunisian mountains which became famous thanks to this study. He worked on it until his death because a work of this magnitude — texts accompanied by phonetic writings, translations and detailed notes — required seven volumes in the form of an encyclopaedic dictionary of the Arabic language in general, not just a dictionary of the Takrouna dialect. The professor studied words and phrases comprehensively, taking the historical and comparative aspects into account in relation to the Takrouna dialect( Marlin, 1957, p. 407). In this region, he identified a new linguistic model that was neither urban nor nomadic. He found features of this model that were similar to those he had heard in the districts of Jijel and Tlemcen, particularly among the Tarara tribe. He also found similar features among the Jabala tribe in the far north of Morocco (Marçais, comment l’Afrique du nord a été arabisé dans “Articles et conférences de William Marçais”, 1961, p. 186). This monumental work deserves all praise and appreciation.
• Between 1931 and 1933, he published another study of a Tunisian dialect in the Asian Journal, titled ‘Three Arabic texts from Hama and Gabès, with translations and a glossary’.
• In 1953: Isidore Lévi published a significant article entitled ‘Exposition and punning in Algerian Arabic dialects’.

He had an extensive knowledge of North African dialects. Upon first meeting Muslim students, he could determine their location and origins from the tone of their speech ( Pouillon, 2008, p. 643). His personal vocabulary was so vast and rich that people in Algeria marvelled at his ability to communicate and explain so fluently and eloquently in their native language.

 Most of Merçais’s work was devoted to the study of North African dialects, earning him glory and honour, as they were not only linguistically valuable, but also an important source of ethnographic, sociological and folkloric information.

Despite the large number of his works on North African dialects, not all of his writings were about Arabic dialects. As previously mentioned, he also wrote on Hadith and had interests in history, language and literature, although his output in these fields was smaller than his work in dialectology. He was also interested in the Arab-Islamic heritage, striving to uncover and publish its treasures with the help of an abundance of printing presses, publishing houses, university research centres and specialised institutes, as well as his mastery of scientific research methods and their application to Oriental studies.

In addition to the aforementioned publications, he proved his worth in translation, particularly with his conversion of stories into French. These later became literary masterpieces in the French language. His literary efforts include :

Notes on the Text of al-Jahiz’s Al-Bukhala (1925) and Notes on the Text of Ibn Hazm’s Tawq al-Hamama (1928). These are examples of textual criticism that testify to a linguistic sensitivity rarely found among Europeans.  Through his book Origins of Arabic Prose, which appeared in 1927, he expressed his interest in the great stylistic scientist (Al-Jahit) and other aspects of prose. In it, he clarifies a difficult issue that he witnessed ( Marçais, les origines de la prose littéraire arabe, 1927, p. 26).

Notably, he was more attracted to prose than poetry, although he was familiar with and appreciated Arabic poetry, both Islamic and Jahiliyya. At any given moment, he would cite a verse to illustrate a word or phrase.

Most of William Marçais’s works focused on the major questions posed by classical Arabic and its relationship with its various dialects. When describing dialects, he aimed to define the human being in social, cultural, and ethnological terms. Through dialect, he always aimed to depict people as they practised their customs, traditions, tastes, concerns, joys and sorrows. He was familiar with the earliest sources of the history of Islam, the history of the Berber region and the Islamisation and Arabisation of North Africa. Through his research in linguistics, ethnography and history, he attempted to understand the individual in a holistic, psychological and ethical context      ( Marlin, 1957, p. 408).

Colonial officers benefited from these studies because orientalists like Marcy never wrote papers for the people of the Maghreb ; their opinions and ideas were primarily directed at their own citizens.

Marçais’s works and writings are a testament to him ; they are so rich and varied that they cannot be counted or enumerated. He left a wealth of material for his successors and disciples, which is one of the greatest services he provided to Islamic and Arabic studies.

4. His approach to his work :

    Like other French Orientalists, Marçais undoubtedly had a unique approach to his Orientalist studies, which can be summarised as follows :

– William Marçais aimed to study these Maghreb dialects scientifically in their spoken state. He often conducted these studies in the form of field research, preparing a large number of audio recordings of speakers of a given dialect. He then proceeded to study them, first describing their phonological system, the sounds and movements of sounds and movements. He then moves on to study the dialect’s morphological and grammatical systems, including its pronouns, nouns, verbs and characteristic words. Finally, he concludes the study by publishing the recorded texts in his own language and preparing lists of the vocabulary and linguistic wealth contained within them. This is undoubtedly accurate, descriptive field research.

– The establishment of the Chair of the Algerian Dialect at the School of Oriental Languages in Paris in 1864 ( Ben Ibrahim, 2004, p. 267), as well as the organisation of local, regional, and international symposiums to support, introduce, and publicise the vernacular, clearly impacted his scientific and literary life. He therefore paid attention to the language of the population, trying to learn it in order to understand and connect with the people. This led to a special interest in studying the Arabic and non-Arabic dialects of the Maghreb. He wrote books on them, recorded their proverbs and expressions, and studied the differences between them in different regions, as well as the differences between them and other Arabic dialects within his area of expertise. But this came with its own challenges, such as the assertion that the Arabic dialects in North Africa have diverged more from standard Arabic than others (Abulkasem, 1996, p. 43). His knowledge of North African dialects was extensive ; he could determine their location and homeland through the tone of their speech. The breadth and richness of his personal dictionary knew no bounds, and he applied his scientific methodology with the help of special features and characteristics, including his command of Semitic and other Eastern languages, his broad cultural knowledge, his specialisation, and his patience and diligence in his work.

– His exaggerated interest in dialect studies and his reliance on lexical comparison to highlight differences and similarities between dialects, as well as the historical development of words, led him to adopt two approaches in his linguistic studies : analytical and historical. However, when studying Arabic, Orientalists are influenced by the scientific and intellectual movements in their own countries and use their methods. This is because ‘they often start from the approaches used to study their own languages, or are greatly influenced by these approaches’ ( Amayreh, 2006, p. 15). Consequently, Orientalists may produce results that are inconsistent with the structure of the Arabic language.

Despite the fact that the work of most ancient Orientalists was based on traditional methods of collecting and studying material, which were characterised by confusion and errors due to the lack of linguistic study and the underdeveloped means of recording, observation and measurement, we should acknowledge their pioneering work in this field of linguistic study and appreciate their diligence.

In light of the above, we can question the extent to which Orientalist studies are objective and scientifically accurate, and the extent to which they are neutral. We can also question the nature of Orientalist historical discourse, its functional role, and the extent to which it is linked to Western colonial projects. Is this discourse an ideological discourse in historical garb that adopts the ‘Western methodology’, or is it the historical scientific methodology that Orientalists boast about and call for in relation to the Islamic heritage ?

5. His vision for the Arabisation of the Maghreb :

William Merçais’s research in this field was organised within his lectures, which were collected posthumously in a volume published in 1961 by the Institute of Oriental Languages (Articles et conférences). This included what he mentioned in a lecture delivered on 26 January 1939 entitled ‘Comment l’Afrique du Nord a été arabisée’ (How North Africa was Arabised). From all his research, he concluded that the region had been Arabised in two historically distinct phases. The first phase began in the middle of the seventh century AD (first AH) and saw the Arabisation of the major Maghreb cities and the emergence of dialects, which he termed ‘W’. The second phase began in the eleventh century AD (fifth AH). During this time, the Maghreb countryside was Arabised, resulting in the emergence of dialects that he distinguished from the speech of inhabitants of other countries. He defined these as ‘Bedouin Arabic dialects’. …. The main points he reached in this study can be summarised as follows :

1. Having started his research by defining the term ‘Arabisation’, he concludes that there is a very strong link between the spread of Islam and Arabisation(Marçais, comment l’Afrique du nord a été arabisé dans “Articles et conférences de William Marçais”, 1961, p. 172).
2. Marcy asserts that, as Islam spread in Morocco and Arabisation began, different sub-dialects emerged. He divided these into two types : The first type was widespread in major cities such as Kairouan, Tunis, Tlemcen and Fez. These cities shared similar linguistic features, while the second type was used by nomads in the countryside and was mainly observed in southern Tunisia, the Algerian countryside and the far south of Morocco. He then noted the existence of a third type intermediate between the first two(Marçais, comment l’Afrique du nord a été arabisé dans “Articles et conférences de William Marçais”, 1961, p. 185).

William Marçais studied and analysed the status of Amazigh in the Greater Arab Maghreb and concluded that Amazigh had a weaker influence in Tunisia than in Algeria and Morocco. Amazigh had disappeared from the Tunisian countryside, with only about 1% of Tunisians remaining speakers of the language. He concluded that the Tunisian coast had been a pioneer in accepting Arabisation and adopting the Arabic language. In contrast, vast areas of the Far Maghreb still have Amazigh speakers, while in the Central Maghreb, the Amazigh and Arabic tribes recorded in history have died out and been replaced by federations of tribes with new names, such as Awlad Nahar and Awlad Riyah (Marçais, comment l’Afrique du nord a été arabisé dans “Articles et conférences de William Marçais”, 1961, p. 184). Linguistically speaking, the Tunisian coast was a pioneer in accepting and deepening Arabisation, far surpassing other regions in the Central and Far Maghreb.

  From William Marçais’s words, it is clear that he relied on the work of Abd al-Rahman Ibn Khaldun in his research and study of Maghreb Arabic dialects. Ibn Khaldun analysed society, especially Maghreb society, accurately identifying the synchronic and evolutionary factors that were shaping and transforming it. Marcy also relied on and was convinced by the linguistic duality proposed by Ibn Khaldun. Marcy showed the existence of two types of pre-Hellenic speech : urban and rural nomadic (Ibn Khaldun, 2007, p. 610). Referring to several studies on Maghrebi dialects, he discussed a type of speech that is neither nomadic nor urban. This type of speech is mainly used in Takrouna, Tunisia, and has the same characteristics as the speech in the Jijel region, Tlemcen, and Tarara in Algeria, as well as in Djebala, Morocco ( Khaoula Taleb, 1997, p. 27), he highlights the most important differences between urban and nomadic speech.

1. Urban speech pronounces the sound of qaf (s), whereas in Bedouin speech, qaf is pronounced with a Cairo gemma (g).
2. The plural verb appears at the end of the word in urban speech, taking the form ‘in-au’, whereas in rural speech it simply retains the form ‘uu’.
3. There are many linguistic differences between both urban and Bedouin dialects( Marçais, Le dialecte arabe parlé à Tlemcen, 1902, p. 7). William Marçais was not immune to the tendency to differentiate between Berbers and Arabs. Like other Westerners, he too made this distinction, referring to the former as barbarians who lacked any social meaning or creative individuality. In his view, the Arabs came as conquerors of the Maghreb, crushing anyone they found in their path (Marçais, comment l’Afrique du nord a été arabisé dans “Articles et conférences de William Marçais”, 1961, p. 185).

Marçais and others adopted the concept of distinguishing between Berbers and Arabs as a key principle when addressing historical and cultural themes.

6. Marçais and bilingualism :

William Marçais was the first to use the term ‘bilingualism’ in French linguistic literature, having borrowed it from the Greek linguistic situation and the German-speaking part of Switzerland, where a distinction is made between the vernacular, which is used for communication, and the classical language, which is used for writing. He was also the first linguist to address the duality of the Arabic language (Classical and Darija) in North Africa in three articles, published on the occasion of the centenary of the French occupation of Algeria. The study concluded that many people view the language of the coloniser as a symbol of civilisation and progress. Exposure to colonial domination resulted in linguistic bifurcation in North Africa due to colonial policies that aimed to integrate peoples and keep pace with the global civilisational context.

Marçais defined bilingualism as the interaction between a written and an oral language, stating that ‘the Arabic language appears to us in two different forms :

A literary language, known as written, standard or classical Arabic. In the past, this was the only written language, and it is still used for literary and scientific works, newspaper articles, legal documents and private letters. However, it is not spoken everywhere.

– An oral language that has never been written. It has long been the language of conversation in all public places ( Khaoula Taleb, 1997, p. 43)”.

Conclusion :

     This study has revealed the most significant linguistic contributions of the French Orientalist, William Marçais. A number of conclusions and observations can be drawn from the study, which are summarised below :

• Studying the orientalist’s efforts (W. Marçais) made us aware of his methods and approaches to his studies, especially the linguistic ones. His studies were characterised by their generality and dealt with various social, cultural and geographical aspects, among others.
• His interest in spoken language, as the basis of language is sound, not writing. This explains his shift from studying law to studying colloquial Arabic, particularly Maghrebi dialects. However, he did not neglect classical Arabic, delivering valuable lectures on the subject at the Collège de France.
• He was also interested in vernacular texts in his study of Eastern dialects, especially popular proverbs, due to their simple linguistic structure, which made them an entry point for his definition and understanding of the vernacular dialect. He also specialised in dictionaries of popular or colloquial words.
• His eagerness to study the dialects and popular literature of the Maghrebi and Amazigh peoples is considered the best way to truly understand these peoples, as he finds cultural, social, economic and political signs in them that indicate the nature of societies, their customs and traditions, and their ways of thinking. Thus, his studies reflect the reality of these peoples.
• This type of speech has often been dismissed, but it attracted the attention of researchers who examined it diligently from all angles because of its deep historical value and great importance. This was of paramount importance in Maghrebi dialectology, helping us to understand the history of Arabic dialects and the Arabic language in the Maghreb. …
• The “modal” of William Marçais’ Orientalist linguistic output can be seen as driven by the objectives of describing and analyzing Maghrebi Arabic dialects within a framework that was characteristic of its time. This framework, while producing valuable linguistic documentation, is now often viewed critically for its potential biases and its embeddedness within a colonial context. His work on diglossia, however, remains a significant contribution to the field.

Perhaps the above fulfils the need for fair, scientific studies of Orientalists’ work and efforts in linguistic studies. We hope that other, more in-depth and analytical studies will follow.

Bibliography :

Marlin, A. (1957). Notice sur la vie et les travaux de M. William Marçais membre de l’académie. Comptes-rendus des séances de l’académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, 101e année, n°4.

Amayreh, I. (2006). Orientalists and Linguistic Approaches (Vol. 3rd). Amman: Dar Wael for Printing and Publishing.

Ben Ibrahim, A.-T. (2004). French Orientalism and the Multiple Missions in Algeria (Vol. 1st). Algiers: Dar Al-Manabi Publishing and Distribution.

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Marçais, W. (1927). les origines de la prose littéraire arabe. Revue Africaine, 68.

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Abulkasem, S. (1996). Research and Opinions in the History of Algeria (Vol. 4 th). Beirut: Dar al-Gharb al-Islami.

Al-Alusi, A. (2001). The Arabic Heritage and the Orientalists – a study in the emergence of the Arabic book and the treasures of Arabic books printed in the West (éd. 1 st). Cairo: Dar al-Fikr al-Arabi.

Ibn Khaldun, A.-r. (2007). al-Muqaddima. Beirut: Dar al-Fikr for Printing, Publishing and Distribution.

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[1]– (1876-1962), who began his higher education at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris, was a painter and writer before discovering Islamic art in 1902 on his trip to Tlemcen and becoming the director of the Algerian Museum of Antiquities and Islamic Art. Georges Marcy gave the history of the art and civilisation of the Maghreb very important studies. See :  les frères Marçais, deux rennais passionnés du Maghreb http://www.bibliorare.com/coin_du_bibliophile_bis.htm