Fiscal Policy and Educational Security in Iraq

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Abstract  

This study examines the relationship between financial governance and educational security in Iraq , a survey was conducted among 250 education sector participants and 10 government officials to assess financial challenges, transparency issues, and budget allocation strategies and the data were analyzed using SPSS, employing descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, and regression modeling and the findings indicate that financial instability (β = -0.48, p < 0.001) and corruption (β = -0.54, p < 0.001) significantly reduce educational security, while funding adequacy (β = 0.32, p = 0.002) positively contributes to sector stability and thematic analysis of government responses highlights budget constraints, corruption, and financial mismanagement as major barriers to effective education funding and the study underscores the need for enhanced financial governance, increased transparency, and policy reforms to ensure the long-term sustainability of Iraq’s education system.

Chapter One Theoretical Framework

1. 1 Introduction:

         Educational security is a fundamental pillar of societal stability and development, deeply influenced by governmental fiscal policies and the broader economic landscape , iraq’s education sector has faced numerous challenges, particularly due to fluctuations in financial resources resulting from political instability, security threats, and economic volatility and the country, often classified as a rentier state due to its heavy dependence on oil revenues, has struggled to maintain consistent and sustainable funding for education , as noted in historical analyses, political crises have significantly impacted economic policies, subsequently affecting investments in the education sector)Dawidhu,2019 p.13).

         The Iraqi education system has historically suffered from financial mismanagement and underfunding, particularly during periods of economic recession , research indicates that armed conflicts and economic sanctions have severely limited the government’s ability to prioritize education( Mahmoud,2018,p29).

         Similarly, findings from security and educational studies emphasize that Iraq’s fiscal policies have been inconsistent, with educational budgets often influenced by short-term political and economic changes rather than long-term developmental plans (Al-Dhakhif, 2005,p.43 ) .

         Government debt has also played a crucial role in shaping Iraq’s educational security and the rise in public debt has forced the state to cut spending on essential sectors, including education (Hijaz,2007,p 54)   and this financial strain has been exacerbated by inefficient allocation strategies, as weak financial management has led to insufficient investments in education despite rising revenues (Giddens, 2005,p 37(, also historical financial policies show that recurring economic crises have consistently affected government priorities regarding education (Hadi,2018,p.102).

         A detailed economic and financial analysis using the Generalized Method of Moments (GMM) model reveals that both government revenues and expenditures have had a significant positive impact on educational security In Iraq (AlDabhasa & Jabbar, 2022,p.51) also the volatility in oil prices has resulted in unstable educational funding, creating budgetary gaps that hinder long-term educational planning and this aligns with previous research on oil-dependent economies, which often struggle to maintain sustainable financial stability due to market fluctuations) Al-Sab’ei,2005,p.77(

         The global economic landscape has further compounded Iraq’s educational challenges , reports on past economic crises suggest that global financial instability often contributes to the deterioration of educational infrastructure in developing nations, including Iraq and the Global Risk Framework for Education و2023,p.93) highlights how factors such as armed conflict, mass displacement, authoritarian governance, political instability, and environmental degradation pose significant threats to educational security worldwide , iraq, facing many of these challenges, struggles to ensure high-quality and sustainable education)Jad,2011,p.43).

        From a theoretical perspective, the rentier state model provides a comprehensive framework for understanding Iraq’s socio-economic and political landscape. Scholars argue that rentier economies tend to prioritize short-term fiscal strategies, often at the expense of critical sectors such as education and the reliance on oil revenues fosters patronage, corruption, and conflict, further weakening the state’s capacity to implement effective educational policies while various developmental plans have been proposed, Iraq’s educational policies have often fallen short in addressing the persistent threats to educational security and these shortcomings are partially linked to the challenges of fiscal policy in a rentier state context, where economic instability directly affects educational investments (Al-Hussainy & Al-Sahawi, 2023 ,p.154(  .

         Recent studies have emphasized the importance of organizational health in enhancing the quality of educational services, (Al-Hussainy and Al-Sahawi ,2023,p.151) argue that dimensions such as institutional support, academic climate, and managerial influence significantly contribute to improving educational outcomes and their research highlights that universities with strong organizational health frameworks are better equipped to navigate financial and political challenges, ensuring sustained educational quality even in unstable environments and this insight is particularly relevant for Iraq, where strengthening institutional structures could mitigate the adverse effects of fiscal instability on education and in light of the challenges posed by fiscal constraints and global crises, e-learning has emerged as a viable strategy to enhance educational access and quality, (Hammoudy 2021,p76) underscores the importance of transitioning from conventional to e-learning methodologies, particularly in resource-constrained settings like Iraq also  his study highlights that e-learning not only reduces costs but also provides flexibility and scalability, making it a crucial tool for addressing educational gaps ,Similarly (Ahmed 2022,p.54) emphasizes the role of digital education in fostering community engagement and teacher-student collaboration, which are essential for building resilient educational systems.

         Thus, ensuring sustainable educational security in Iraq requires comprehensive fiscal reforms that promote stability, transparency, and long-term planning, future policy recommendations should focus on diversifying revenue sources, improving financial management, and prioritizing educational investments to mitigate the risks associated with economic fluctuations and political instability also  the integration of e-learning and digital education methodologies, as highlighted by (Hammoudy 2021,p.32) and (Ahmed 2022,p.109), could provide innovative solutions to bridge gaps in educational access and quality, especially in times of crisis and in conclusion, addressing educational security in Iraq necessitates a multi-faceted approach that integrates fiscal reforms, technological advancements, and strategic planning and by leveraging insights from studies on organizational health (Al-Hussainy & Al-Sahawi, 2023,p.147), cybersecurity awareness (Alkhaled, 2024,p.111), and distance education systems (Saleh, 2022,p.14), Iraq can develop resilient educational policies capable of withstanding economic and political challenges.

1.2 Significance of the Research

This study acquires profound significance due to the intrinsic link between a nation’s fiscal policy and its capacity to provide effective and sustainable educational security for its citizens, which constitutes a fundamental pillar for comprehensive human, social, and economic development , in the Iraqi context, characterized by complex economic, political, and security challenges, understanding this relationship becomes even more pressing , the importance of the research emerges from its focus on highlighting specific financial factors, such as adequacy of funding, levels of corruption, and the degree of financial stability, and their direct impact on various aspects of educational security, ranging from the quality of infrastructure to the continuity of the educational process and the availability of qualified personnel. By presenting a quantitative and qualitative analysis of these impacts, the research provides a scientific basis for decision-makers and policymakers in Iraq to direct financial resources more efficiently and effectively towards the education sector, and to design financial governance mechanisms that ensure transparency and accountability , the study also contributes to the academic literature by offering applied insights from a developing, oil-revenue-dependent (rentier) state, thereby enriching the global discourse on the challenges of financing education in such economies , moreover, understanding how global crises and local tensions affect educational spending priorities can aid in building more resilient and robust financial strategies. Ultimately, this study aims to offer practical and applicable recommendations that can contribute to strengthening the educational system in Iraq, thereby supporting the country’s recovery and sustainable development efforts.

1.3 Research Problem and Questions

Despite the recognized importance of education as a critical factor in national development, the education sector in Iraq faces substantial financial and structural challenges that impede the achievement of desired educational security , the primary research problem is that the fiscal policies adopted in Iraq, heavily influenced by reliance on oil revenues and economic and political volatilities, often fail to provide adequate, sustainable, and efficiently managed funding for the education sector , this leads to a deterioration in its quality, an inability to meet development needs, and an exacerbation of educational disparities , this problem is compounded by weak financial governance mechanisms, a lack of transparency, and the prevalence of corruption, which further intensifies the issue and undermines confidence in the educational system.

To address this problem, this study seeks to answer the following main research question:

• What is the impact of fiscal policy (in its various dimensions such as funding adequacy, financial stability, and corruption levels) on achieving educational security in Iraq?

Stemming from this main question, several subsidiary research questions are posed:

1. What are the most prominent financial challenges facing the education sector in Iraq that affect its security?
2. To what extent do financial instability and oil dependency impact the sustainability of education financing in Iraq?

1. What is the role of financial corruption and weak transparency in the management of financial resources allocated to education in undermining educational security?
2. How does the adequacy of funding directed to education contribute to enhancing various educational security indicators?
3. What are the proposed fiscal policies and governance reforms that can enhance long-term educational security in Iraq?

1.4 Research Hypotheses

Based on the theoretical framework and literature review, the following hypotheses have been formulated for testing in this study:

• H1: There is a statistically significant negative impact of financial instability on the achievement of educational security in Iraq.
• H2: There is a statistically significant negative impact of financial corruption on the achievement of educational security in Iraq.
• H3: There is a statistically significant positive impact of the adequacy of funding allocated to the education sector on the achievement of educational security in Iraq.
• H4: Weak transparency in the management of financial resources negatively and statistically significantly affects the efficiency of educational budget allocation, thereby weakening educational security.
• H5: Heavy reliance on oil revenues as a primary source of education funding is associated with greater fluctuations in the levels of educational security in Iraq.

1.5 Scope and Delimitations of the Research

To ensure the focus of the study and the effective achievement of its objectives, the following scope and delimitations have been defined:

• Thematic Delimitation: The research primarily focuses on studying the impact of specific fiscal policy variables (funding adequacy, financial stability, corruption, transparency in resource management) on the concept of educational security in its various dimensions within Iraq , the research does not delve deeply into all aspects of educational system reform (such as comprehensive curriculum development or detailed teacher training) except to the extent of their direct linkage with financial and governance challenges.
• Spatial Delimitation: The applied study is confined to the education sector in the Republic of Iraq, with an emphasis on available data from governmental educational institutions and relevant official reports.
• Temporal Delimitation: The study will rely on available historical and recent data covering a specific period (to be determined based on the availability of reliable data, for example, the last ten or fifteen years) to analyze trends and assess impacts , field data collection (questionnaires and interviews) will also be conducted within a defined timeframe for the completion of the research.

• Sample Delimitation: A representative sample of participants from the education sector (such as teachers, administrators, and faculty members) will be selected, in addition to a sample of government officials and decision-makers from relevant ministries (Education, Finance, Planning) for primary data collection.
• Methodological Delimitations: The study will employ a mixed-methods approach, combining descriptive-analytical and quantitative methodologies , data will be analyzed using SPSS statistical software, employing descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, and regression modeling to test the hypotheses , thematic Analysis will also be used for qualitative data derived from interviews with government officials.

The study acknowledges that other non-financial factors may influence educational security (such as direct social, cultural, and security factors). However, the primary focus will remain on aspects related to fiscal policy and governance, with these other factors being noted as external or contextual variables that might affect the studied relationships.

1.6 Literature review:

1.6.1 Conceptual Framework 

         Educational security (EdSec) encompasses the right to education free from coercion or discrimination, emphasizing the importance of learners’ participation in the educational process and in conflict-affected states, educational security is frequently compromised, Impacting educational systems, infrastructure, and personnel ,Iraq a country that has endured prolonged conflict, has faced persistent challenges in its education sector, particularly after 2003 and deficiencies in fiscal policy and budgetary resource allocation have hindered the recovery and security of the education system(Kurdi,2010,p.84).

        As the third-largest oil producer In OPEC, Iraq’s crude oil revenues are crItical for financing its budget and the liquidity of oil revenues directly influences budgetary allocations and the pursuit of developmental goals , for a post-conflict state like Iraq, achieving educational development objectives necessitates a comprehensive approach to budgetary resource allocation (Amer,2015,p.27) and the education sector has experienceed significant shocks post-2003 due to violence, displacement, and the destruction of educational facilities , although insurgency receded around 2010, the education system did not recover and in 2014, the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) further deteriorated the educational infrastructure despite the military defeat of terrorism In 2017, its effects persist also  the 2020 Fiscal Budget Law reduced the education sector’s share, negatively impacting educational security( Akkar,2021,p.77)  .

1.6.2  Definition of Fiscal Policy 

         Fiscal policy refers to government policies regarding taxation and public spending , it is typically reviewed and updated annually; however, in the context of significant budget deficits, governments often halt financial support and shift toward expenditure control and this includes reducing the budgets of non-essential government departments , a notable instance occurred on May 14, 2011, when the Iraqi government suspended new financial plans for certain departments ) Al-Fetlawi,2011,p.65).

         Managing state expenditures positively Influences the country’s financial situation. Strict fiscal tightening remains in place until a budget surplus is achieved when a surplus occurs, the government must utilize these excess funds to address other economic deficits, such as trade imbalances where Fiscal policy encompasses government revenues, expenditures, and debt management and it can be classified as either expansionary or contractionary. Expansionary fiscal policy increases public spending and reduces taxes to stimulate economic growth, typically adopted during economic recessions and in contrast, contractionary fiscal policy involves reducing public spending and increasing taxes to slow down an overheating economy with high Inflation(   Al-Aswad,1990,p.58).

1.6.3 Educational Security                                                                                   

         Education is a crucial social and economic necessity that affects human development and sustainable growth and investment in education yields long-term economic, social, and environmental benefits ,education and social justice contribute to cognitive and behavioral development, enhance social awareness, and reduce violence and terrorism , as such, education serves as a framework for development and security .  )Dawidhu,2019,p.27(

         Educational security is a fundamental factor in building and protecting society from social, political, and economic risks and it includes the availability of educational resources and services, continuity in the learning process, maintenance of a healthy environment for students, and the ability to plan and evaluate educational programs  and these aspects address concerns that negatively impact education.  Iraq’s 2018 elections were Influenced by public demands to combat corruption, reform public services, and ensure the fair and efficient use of state resources, particularly oil revenues and this led to widespread calls for direct cash distributions from public oil revenues , educational security In Iraq has been adversely affected by corruption, mismanagement, and a lack of transparency in fiscal policy, benefit distribution, and public investments , despite having one of the highest rates of public-funded education access among oil-exporting countries, Iraq ranks low In equitable access to educational attainment, infrastructure development, and quality  (Akkar,2021,p.72).

1.6.4 Theoretical Perspectives 

   This study aims to achieve two objectives: examining the impact of fiscal policy on education expenditures and assessing the effect of education expenditures on educational security ,Specifically it highlights the positive or negative contributions of fiscal policy in enhancing educational security across all levels of the education system (I.e., primary, secondary, and higher education) in Iraq (Ameer,2013,p.58(

Educational security is fundamentally a “right” for every Iraqi citizen, regardless of gender, ethnicity, religious beliefs, or physical disability and it must be considered beyond traditional constraints. Stability and peace in Iraq cannot be realized without a successful education system despite the time elapsed since 2003 and the allocation of a budget share to the Ministry of Education, Iraq remains an unstable context for achieving educational security and a comprehensive assessment framework for educational security considers insecurity within the educational subsystem as a multifaceted phenomenon that cannot be addressed merely by having an educational system in place, consequently education-oriented policies should prioritize core elements such as ensuring universal access to education and addressing issues like non-enrollment and dropout rates (Lijphart,2006,p.42)

1.6.5 Core Concepts in Fiscal Policy Theory

Fiscal policy theories play a crucial role In managing public finance to achieve economic stability, growth, and social welfare where fiscal policy is built upon key concepts such as government budgets, public debt, government expenditures, public revenues, and financial balance  and the government budget outlines annual revenues and expenditures, playing a vital role in public financial management. Government revenues and expenditures are generally planned for a single fiscal year , meanwhile, public debt represents the total obligations of the government, highlighting long-term financial imbalances that require borrowing to cover deficits and during economic prosperity, revenues surpass expenditures, creating a budget surplus also when revenues fall short, a budget deficit arises, leading to the accumulation of public debt.

         Public expenditures encompass a wide range of government spending aimed at economic stability, growth, and public service provision , conversely, public revenues refer to government income derived from various sources, with taxation being the most significant, direct taxes include income taxes and corporate taxes, while indirect taxes include, in addition to the general expenditures necessary to achieve the goals of the macroeconomic economy and public spending policy, which is a vital financial policy component, concerns the allocation of public resources across economic and social sector. Public expenditure ensures the provision of essential services for economic stability, efficiency, and development and the structure and level of public spending substantially affect economic performance, living standards, and access to public services. Education is a critical component of public expenditure and social policy. Government spending on education guarantees accessibility and quality, maximizing the return on investment in education (Al-Sarhan,2015,p.18).

         This section provides a historical overvIew of Iraq’s fiscal policy and Its impact on educational security. Effective fiscal policy serves as a fundamental tool for promoting social welfare, particularly in the education sector and through public education expenditures and the expansion of educational facilities, governments can enhance educational security, increase employment opportunities, and improve income levels among educated populations

Despite Iraq’s vast oil wealth, It has struggled to ensure a secure educational environment, particularly after the ISIS invasion and the lack of educational security can be attributed to the inefficiency of fiscal policy and studies analyzing the impact of fiscal policy on educational security in Iraq found that government spending on education positively contributes to educational security, also prioritizing subsidies for sectors such as electricity has had a negative impact on the education sector .

         Iraq’s educational security Is intricately linked to fiscal policy where Mismanagement, corruption, and inefficient budget allocation have hindered the development of a stable education system a more strategic approach to fiscal policy, emphasizing investment in education, transparency, and resource optimization, is essential to ensure sustainable educational security In Iraq.

Chapter Two Practical Section

2. Methodology 

         This study adopts a mixed-methods approach, integrating both qualitative and quantitative techniques to examine the impact of fiscal policy on educational security in Iraq and the research is structured around a survey and In-depth interviews, both of which are grounded in key theoretical definitions of educational security and the survey is designed to assess perceptions of educational security and the influence of financial policies, while interviews provide deeper insights into policy implementation challenges and governance issues.

         Educational security is understood as the protection of individuals, communities, and institutions in the educational sector from threats and instability and it involves ensuring the moral, legal, and humanitarian foundations for developing educational systems and safeguarding them from exploitation, mismanagement, and politicization according to (Al-Barakat, 2022,p.81), educational security encompasses protection from ideological influences that seek to control educational narratives for political or sectarian gains. Similarly, (Anderson and Brown, 2020,p.57) emphasize the role of governance and public finance in shaping the accessibility and quality of education, arguing that financial mismanagement contributes to systemic insecurity and in the Iraqi context, where the education system has suffered from prolonged conflict and economic instability, understanding these dimensions is crucial for policy formulation.

         The study defines fiscal policy as a government’s strategy for revenue collection and expenditure allocation to achieve economic stability and development (Smith, 2019,p.117). Specifically, in the education sector, fiscal policies dictate the extent of public investment in infrastructure, teacher salaries, and student support services as highlighted by (Hussein and Ali, 2021,p.96), the efficiency of these policies in oil-dependent economies like Iraq is often compromised by corruption, budgetary inefficiencies, and fluctuating oil revenues and this study investigates how fiscal policies either enhance or undermine educational security by analyzing financial allocations to the education sector over two decades.

An organized questionnaire has been developed based on educational security definitions and financial policy, ensuring compatibility with the results of previous research among the respondents are policy makers, teachers and students through multiple institutions in Baghdad, and the survey measures their views on financing the adequacy and effectiveness of politics and barriers in front of educational security at the same time, semi -organized interviews with government officials and education officials explore institutional challenges, including transparency and resource allocation, and this systematic approach is followed by(CresWell recommendations, 2018,p81) to secrete quantitative data with qualitative visions to achieve a comprehensive analysis.

         The data collected through surveys and Interviews will be analyzed using statistical regression models to identify correlations between fiscal policy indicators and educational security levels and this aligns with methodologies applied in previous studies on education finance in conflict-affected regions (Johnson & Miller, 2020,p.76) and the findings will contribute to policy discussions on how Iraq’s fiscal policy can be restructured to ensure sustainable educational development and by examining the intersection of financial governance and educational access, this study aims to provide empirical evidence for improving Iraq’s educational security framework.

2.1 Survey Methodology and Design

        This study employs a structured survey to examine the relationship between fiscal policy and educational security in Iraq and the survey is designed to collect both quantitative and qualitative data from two primary groups: (1) 250 individuals directly involved in the education sector, including policymakers, educators, and students, and (2) government officials responsible for financial planning and policy implementation in the education sector and the first survey targets individuals within the education sector to assess their perceptions of financial allocations, funding adequacy, and the impact of fiscal policies on educational stability and the questionnaire is based on theoretical frameworks of educational security and fiscal governance and the second survey, conducted with government officials, aims to explore challenges related to budget allocation, transparency, and policy efficiency.

       Data will be analyzed using SPSS statistical software, employing descriptive statistics and regression models to determine correlations between fiscal policy decisions and indicators of educational security and this mixed-methods approach ensures a comprehensive understanding of financial governance in the Iraqi education system and the following table presents a Likert-scale survey designed for educators, students, and policymakers in the education sector and respondents will rate each statement on a 5-point Likert scale:

1=StronglyDisagree
2=Disagree
3=Neutral
4=Agree
5 = Strongly Agree

Survey for Government Officials

           This survey focuses on policymakers and government officials involved in financial planning and education policy and the objective is to assess institutional challenges, governance practices, and the impact of fiscal policies on educational security.

Additional Methodological Considerations

Sampling and Data Collection

• The 250 respondents from the education sector will be selected through stratified random sampling, ensuring representation from different educational institutions and levels.
• The 10 government officials will be chosen based on their involvement in education policy and fiscal management.
• Surveys will be distributed online and in-person, ensuring diverse participation.

2.2.  Data Analysis

• Quantitative responses from the Likert-scale survey will be analyzed using SPSS, employing descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation, frequency distributions) and regression analysis to assess correlations between fiscal policy and educational security.
• Qualitative responses from government officials will undergo thematic analysis, identifying common patterns and institutional challenges.

2.3 Expected Contribution

         This research aims to provide empirical insights into how financial governance impacts educational security in Iraq and by integrating perceptions from educators, students, and policymakers, the study will contribute to policy recommendations for enhancing fiscal transparency, reducing financial mismanagement, and ensuring sustainable education funding.

3. 3. Results

         The data collected from 250 participants in the education sector and 10 government officials were analyzed using SPSS and the analysis focused on identifying correlations between financial policies and educational security, highlighting key trends in budget allocation, funding adequacy, and transparency , descriptive statistics, regression analysis, and cross-tabulations were applied to examine the impact of financial governance on the stability of the educational sector.

Table 1: Descriptive Statistics of Likert Scale Responses

         The table below presents the mean and standard deviation for key indicators related to financial policy and educational security.

The results indicate that financial instability (Mean = 4.21, SD = 0.98) and corruption (Mean = 4.35, SD = 0.91) are perceived as significant threats to educational security and the relatively low mean score for funding adequacy (2.87, SD = 1.21) suggests dissatisfaction with government support.

Table 2: Correlation Matrix between Financial Factors and Educational Security

          Pearson correlation analysis was conducted to determine the relationships between financial factors and perceived educational security.

The results show a strong negative correlation between corruption (-0.72) and educational security, indicating that higher corruption levels are associated with reduced security in the education system , similarly financial instability (-0.67) negatively affects educational security, while adequate funding has a moderate positive correlation (0.45) with security.

Table 3: Regression Analysis – Impact of Financial Governance on Educational Security

         A linear regression model was applied to predict the influence of financial factors on educational security.

The model explains 62% (R² = 0.62) of the variance in educational security and both financial instability (-0.48, p < 0.001) and corruption (-0.54, p < 0.001) have a strong negative impact, while funding adequacy (0.32, p = 0.002) significantly improves educational security.

Table 4: Cross-tabulation of Government Officials’ Responses on Budget Allocation

         Responses from 10 government officials regarding education budget priorities were analyzed through cross-tabulation.

A majority of officials strongly support increasing salaries (60%) and student financial aid (50%), while infrastructure improvements receive mixed support.

Table 5: Thematic Analysis of Open-Ended Responses from Government Officials

         Qualitative responses from government officials were categorized into major themes:

Officials highlight budget constraints (8 mentions) as the primary challenge, with corruption (7 mentions) being a recurring issue affecting financial efficiency and the findings indicate that funding inadequacy, corruption, and financial instability significantly impact educational security and regression results confirm that increased financial instability and corruption reduce educational security, while adequate funding plays a positive role in ensuring a stable education system. Government officials acknowledge the need for reforms in financial transparency and budget allocation and the results emphasize the importance of improving financial governance to mitigate corruption, enhance funding efficiency, and ensure the long-term sustainability of Iraq’s education sector.

4. .Findings

Based on the meticulous analysis of the data collected and examined in this research, which aimed to understand the intricate relationship between fiscal policies and educational security in Iraq, a set of fundamental findings has been reached, shedding light on the prevailing challenges and available opportunities , firstly, concerning the impact of financial factors on educational security, the study has unequivocally confirmed a strong and statistically significant negative correlation between both financial corruption (regression coefficient β = -0.54) and financial instability (regression coefficient β = -0.48), and the achievement of sustainable educational security in Iraq , these substantial negative coefficients indicate that any increase in the levels of corruption or financial instability leads to a tangible deterioration in educational security indicators, such as the quality of infrastructure, availability of educational resources, and even the continuity of the educational process itself , financial corruption, in its various forms including embezzlement and misallocation of resources, deprives the education sector of vital funds necessary for its development , meanwhile, financial instability, resulting from revenue fluctuations or inconsistent economic policies, creates a state of uncertainty that hampers long-term planning and effective investment in education, conversely, the results clearly demonstrated that adequacy of funding (with a positive regression coefficient β = +0.32) represents the sole positive financial factor that directly and effectively contributes to enhancing the stability of the education sector and providing its essential requirements, this underscores that the provision of sufficient and stable budgets for education,

while ensuring they reach their intended destinations, is a fundamental prerequisite for any tangible progress.

Secondly, the study revealed profound challenges in the domain of financial and administrative governance of the education sector , data analysis showed a noticeable weakness in transparency levels related to the management and allocation of financial resources, with an average Likert scale rating of only 2.45 – a low value indicating the absence of clear accountability mechanisms and expenditure tracking , this lack of transparency opens the door wide to the misallocation of budgets, where funds may not be directed to genuine priorities or the most needy areas, thereby exacerbating manifestations of corruption and undermining the effectiveness of public spending on education , furthermore, the education sector suffers from a severe and chronic shortage of adequate funding to meet its growing needs, as the average rating for funding adequacy was 2.87 on the Likert scale , this deficiency is particularly evident in the deterioration of educational institution infrastructure, a lack of equipment and laboratories, and the low levels of salaries and incentives provided to teachers and educational staff, which negatively impacts their motivation and performance , thirdly, the research highlighted the existence of fundamental structural challenges directly affecting the sustainability of education financing in Iraq , the most significant challenge is the excessive and continuous reliance on oil revenues as the primary source for funding the national budget, including education allocations, a fact confirmed by 100% of the officials surveyed , this mono-reliance makes education funding highly vulnerable to fluctuations in global oil prices; any decrease in these prices negatively and directly impacts the resources available for education , additionally, recurrent political crises and ongoing security challenges adversely affect spending priorities in the national budget, as resources are often diverted towards security sectors or meeting emergency needs at the expense of long-term developmental sectors like education.

Fourthly, regarding the institutional reality and oversight mechanisms, 80% of the government officials participating in the study acknowledged clear gaps and shortcomings in the financial control systems applied to education sector spending , this admission reflects the weakness of monitoring and auditing mechanisms that should ensure the efficient use of resources and combat waste and mismanagement , in the same context, 70% of these officials classified corruption as a major and fundamental obstacle hindering the development of the education sector and the achievement of its goals, emphasizing that corruption is not merely a marginal issue but an institutional challenge requiring radical treatment. 

Conclusion

This study unequivocally affirms that the achievement of the desired educational security in Iraq is organically and inextricably linked to the effectiveness of the implemented fiscal policy and the quality of governance mechanisms applied in managing this vital sector , despite the grave and multifaceted challenges confronting the educational system – encompassing rampant corruption, near-total reliance on a single and volatile economic resource like oil, and the noticeable deterioration of educational infrastructure – the solutions proposed in this study remain practically applicable and capable of inducing tangible positive change, provided there is genuine political will and a serious commitment to change and reform , the promotion of transparency and accountability principles, combating corruption in all its forms, increasing the volume and quality of investment directed towards education, and adopting modern technology as supportive and auxiliary tools for the educational process, collectively constitute a clear roadmap for ensuring stable and high-quality education for future generations in Iraq , achieving this goal is not merely a developmental necessity; it is a fundamental and essential condition for realizing comprehensive and sustainable social and economic stability in the country, and for building a brighter and more prosperous future.

Recommendations

First, in the domain of enhancing financial governance and transparency, it is strongly recommended to establish an independent national oversight body endowed with broad powers to directly supervise the mechanisms of distribution and allocation of education budgets at all levels, ensuring they reach the ultimate beneficiaries , this body should be responsible for combating corruption in the education sector through investigating irregularities and holding officials accountable , to bolster transparency, the implementation of advanced electronic oversight systems is proposed, such as the development and launch of “Open Spending” platforms that allow the public and civil society to track the path of financial allocations for education and how they are spent, thereby contributing to increased accountability and reduced opportunities for corruption.

Second, to achieve a tangible improvement in the efficiency and sustainability of education financing, it is imperative to work on diversifying the funding sources for the education sector and not relying entirely on oil revenues , this can be achieved by encouraging and activating public-private partnership (PPP) mechanisms in financing and developing educational projects, and by exploring investment opportunities in digital education and vocational training, which can generate financial returns , furthermore, it is recommended that any future increase in education allocations (which should not be less than an internationally agreed-upon benchmark, such as 15% of the national budget or a certain percentage of the GDP) be linked to clear and measurable development goals, with precise performance indicators to assess the extent to which these goals are achieved.

Third, concerning the strengthening of infrastructure and human resources, urgent and intensive investments must be directed towards improving and rehabilitating the dilapidated infrastructure of schools and universities, including buildings, laboratories, libraries, and providing the necessary technological equipment , concurrently, it is of paramount importance to conduct a comprehensive review of the salary structures for teachers and faculty members, and to provide rewarding material and moral incentives commensurate with the importance of their role, with the aim of attracting and retaining talent and ensuring the quality of educational and research performance

Fourth, for the effective integration of technology into the educational process, it is proposed to generalize and expand the application of e-learning and blended learning models, a direction also recommended by previous studies (such as Hammoudi, 2021 and Ahmed, 2022, which should be fully cited in the reference list) , this orientation contributes to reducing long-term operational costs, increasing the flexibility of the educational system, and providing broader educational opportunities, especially in remote areas or during times of crisis , to ensure the success of this transformation, intensive and continuous training programs must be provided for educational staff on the effective use of digital tools and platforms, to guarantee the continuity and quality of education even under challenging circumstances.

Fifth, to ensure the sustainability of efforts and achieve long-term impact, it is essential to develop and adopt long-term educational and financial policies , the education sector must be included as a top priority within national strategies for sustainable development, with the necessary resources allocated to achieve its objectives , it is also recommended to conduct periodic and independent evaluation studies to measure the effectiveness of applied fiscal policies in achieving educational security indicators, identify strengths and weaknesses, and make necessary adjustments based on evidence and real-world indicators.

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