Persuasive Strategies in Political Discourse with Special Reference to Iraqi Prime Ministers
Prepared by the researcher : Lect. Alyaa Hadi Salim, Basrah and Arab Gulf Research Center/ University of Basrah/ Iraq
Democratic Arabic Center
Journal of Human Resources Development for Studies and Research : Twenty-Third Issue – January 2024
A Periodical International Journal published by the “Democratic Arab Center” Germany – Berlin
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Abstract
Persuasive techniques play a crucial role in political discourse, as they are employed by politicians to influence and sway public opinion. Persuasive techniques refer to the strategies and tactics used to convince others to adopt a particular viewpoint, support a specific policy, or take a desired action. These techniques are employed by politicians to shape public opinion, gain support, and achieve their political objectives. Persuasive techniques encompass a wide range of methods, including rhetorical strategies, argumentation techniques, language and framing, nonverbal communication, and audience analysis1.
Language and framing techniques are also crucial in political discourse. The way politicians frame their messages and use language can significantly impact how their ideas are perceived by the public. Metaphors, analogies, and other linguistic devices can be employed to simplify complex concepts and make them more relatable to the audience. Framing techniques, on the other hand, involve presenting an issue from a particular perspective or angle to shape public perception. By framing an issue in a certain way, politicians can influence how the public understands and responds to it.
- An Overview on the term “Persuasion”
Persuasion is present in all human activities; people persuade each other while learning, working and socializing. Scholars representing different disciplines like communication, psychology and advertising have come to a unanimous conclusion that persuasion is the intended human communication which is used to impact the autonomous judgments and actions of other people. Aristotle developed the first scientific approach to persuasion, and discovered the scientific elements of it. According to him, persuasion is based on three principles: the nature of the communicator, i.e. ethos; the emotional state of the audience, i.e. pathos; the message arguments, i.e. logos. 2
Also, persuasion is typically defined as “human communication that is designed to influence others by modifying their beliefs, values, or attitudes”. O’Keefe 3 argued that there are requirements for the sender, the means, and the recipient to consider something persuasive. First, persuasion involves a goal and the intent to achieve that goal on the part of the message sender. Second, communication is the means to achieve that goal. Third, the message recipient must have free will (i.e., threatening physical harm if the recipient doesn’t comply is usually considered force, not persuasion). Accordingly, persuasion is not accidental, nor is it coercive. It is inherently communicational.
Also, Persuasion is defined by Lakoff 1 as follows: By “persuasion” I mean the attempt or intention of one participant to change the behavior, feelings, intentions or viewpoint of another by communicative means. Persuasive discourse refers to the linguistic devices’ individuals use to convince others. Connor & Lauer 4 consider written persuasive discourse to be ‘that which integrates the rational, the credibility, and affective appeals (corresponding to logos, ethos, and pathos) …in its (the speaker’s) effort to effect cooperation and identification with an audience’. Their analysis of cross-cultural written persuasive discourse attempts to identify those rational, credible and affective features of a text that account for its persuasiveness.
Persuasion involves verbal and nonverbal symbols. Symbols include various persuasive words like freedom, jokes, equality etc.; non-verbal signs like the flag of this or that country, Holy Cross, specific signs and so on. The persuader must be aware that the second party, that is the receiver, has a mental state and he/she is able to change it. The message can be transmitted through various ways such as: interpersonally, through mass media, or via the Internet. It may consist of arguments or simple hints, like music in an advertisement that brings pleasant sensations. 5
- PERSUASIVE TECHNIQUES
When you are confronted with a piece of persuasive writing, it is useful to think about how the writer is using language to persuade. Writers can use numerous strategies to convince you of their point-of view, like using (adjectives, adverbs, alliteration, analogy, anecdote, attacks, bias, colloquial language, connotation, description, emotive language, euphemism and many others)
A persuasive technique is a complex set of linguistic tools employed to change attitudes and get responses without openly imposing any ideas on the recipient. In advertising, persuasive techniques are employed not so much to increase sales but rather to build rapport and raise brand awareness. Young 6 lists five principles of argumentation that are specific to the sales relationship and form the basis for persuasion in advertising:
- demonstrate the company’s awareness and understanding of the consumer’s needs;
- create a friendly and responsive environment to build rapport and
demonstrate the responsible attitude to the consumer’s expectations;
- demonstrate professionalism to show that the company is a worthy product or service provider;
- create a desire to use the advertised product or service;
- provide evidence to explain how the product will benefit the consumer.
Persuasion Theories
Understanding how people are persuaded is very important to the discussion of public speaking. Number of researchers have created theories that help explain why people are persuaded. There are numerous theories that help to explain persuasion, like: social judgment theory, cognitive dissonance theory, and the elaboration likelihood model.
Social Judgment Theory
Muzafer Sherif and Hovland 7 created social judgment theory “attempts to determine what types of communicative messages and under what conditions communicated messages will lead to a change in someone’s behavior by comparing it with current attitudes”. In essence, Sherif and Hovland found that people’s perceptions of attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviors exist on a continuum including latitude of rejection, latitude of non-commitment, and latitude of acceptance.
Cognitive dissonance theory
is an aversive motivational state that occurs when an individual entertains two or more contradictory attitudes, values, beliefs, or behaviors simultaneously. It is noted that for cognitive dissonance to work effectively there are three necessary conditions: aversive consequences, freedom of choice, and insufficient external justification
- Importance of Persuasion in Politics
Persuasion is a fundamental aspect of politics, playing a crucial role in shaping public opinion, influencing voter behavior, and ultimately determining the outcome of elections. In the realm of political discourse, the ability to persuade is a powerful tool that politicians and political actors employ to advance their agendas, gain support, and rally the masses behind their cause. Understanding the importance of persuasion in politics is essential for both politicians and citizens alike, as it allows us to critically analyze and evaluate the messages and tactics used in political communication. 8
- Shaping Public Opinion
One of the primary reasons why persuasion is so important in politics is its ability to shape public opinion. Public opinion refers to the collective beliefs, attitudes, and preferences of the general population on various political issues. Politicians and political actors engage in persuasive strategies to influence public opinion in their favor, as it directly impacts their ability to gain support and win elections.
Through persuasive techniques such as emotional appeals, logical arguments, and rhetorical devices, politicians aim to sway public opinion in their direction. They strategically craft their messages to resonate with the concerns, values, and aspirations of the target audience. By doing so, they can build a positive image, establish credibility, and gain the trust of the public.
- Influencing Voter Behavior
In addition to shaping public opinion, persuasion in politics also plays a crucial role in influencing voter behavior. Elections are the cornerstone of democratic societies, and the ability to persuade voters is essential for politicians to secure their votes. Political candidates employ various persuasive strategies to convince voters that they are the best choice and that their policies align with the voters’ interests. 9
Emotional appeals are commonly used to connect with voters on a personal level. By evoking emotions such as fear, anger, hope, or empathy, politicians can tap into the voters’ values and aspirations, influencing their decision-making process. Logical and rational techniques, such as presenting evidence and using sound reasoning, are also employed to convince voters of the validity and effectiveness of a candidate’s policies.
- Mobilizing Support
Persuasion in politics goes beyond shaping public opinion and influencing voter behavior; it also plays a crucial role in mobilizing support. Political actors aim to rally their supporters, energize their base, and encourage them to take action. Persuasive techniques are used to motivate individuals to attend rallies, volunteer for campaigns, donate money, and ultimately vote for a particular candidate or party.
By employing persuasive strategies such as motivational speeches, inspiring narratives, and calls to action, politicians can mobilize their supporters and create a sense of unity and purpose. They appeal to the emotions and values of their audience, instilling a sense of urgency and importance in their cause. This mobilization of support is vital for political success, as it helps to build momentum, increase visibility, and ultimately secure victory. 10
- Building Coalitions and Alliances
Persuasion in politics is not limited to convincing individual voters; it also plays a crucial role in building coalitions and alliances. In order to achieve their political goals, politicians often need the support and cooperation of other individuals, groups, or political parties. Persuasive strategies are employed to negotiate, persuade, and build consensus among different stakeholders.
Through persuasive techniques such as compromise, negotiation, and the use of shared values and interests, politicians can build alliances and coalitions that amplify their influence and increase their chances of success. Persuasion is essential in convincing potential partners to align their interests with those of the politician, creating a united front that can effectively advocate for their shared objectives.
- Counteracting Opposition
In the realm of political discourse, persuasion is not only used to advance one’s own agenda but also to counteract opposition. Political actors engage in persuasive strategies to challenge and undermine the arguments and positions of their opponents. By employing logical reasoning, presenting evidence, and debunking misinformation, politicians aim to weaken the credibility and support of their adversaries.
Persuasion is also used to respond to criticism, address concerns, and defend one’s own policies and actions. Through effective communication and persuasive techniques, politicians can shape the narrative surrounding their actions, mitigating potential damage and maintaining public support.
5 – Understanding Political Discourse
Political discourse involves the use of language to convey political messages, persuade others, and engage in political debates. It encompasses various forms of communication, including speeches, debates, interviews, press conferences, political advertisements, social media posts, and written articles. It is through these channels that politicians, activists, and citizens express their views, promote their agendas, and engage in political discussions.
Political discourse is not limited to formal political settings such as legislative bodies or campaign rallies. It permeates all aspects of society, from everyday conversations to media coverage, and from academic debates to online forums. It is a fundamental aspect of democratic societies, as it allows for the expression of diverse opinions, the negotiation of conflicting interests, and the formulation of public policies. 11
- The Role of Language in Political Discourse
Language plays a crucial role in political discourse. It is the primary tool used by politicians and leaders to convey their ideas, persuade the public, and shape public opinion. The choice of words, tone, and rhetoric can have a significant impact on how political messages are received and interpreted by the audience. 12
- Language as a Persuasive Tool
One of the main functions of language in political discourse is persuasion. Politicians use language strategically to influence public opinion, gain support, and rally their followers. They employ various rhetorical devices and persuasive techniques to make their arguments more compelling and convincing. One common persuasive technique is the use of emotional appeals. Politicians often tap into the emotions of the audience by using powerful and evocative language. By appealing to people’s fears, hopes, and desires, they can create a strong emotional connection and sway public opinion in their favor. For example, a politician might use vivid and emotive language to describe the consequences of a particular policy, aiming to elicit fear or empathy from the audience.
Another persuasive tool is the use of logical reasoning. Politicians often present their arguments in a logical and coherent manner to make them appear more rational and credible. They may use facts, statistics, and expert opinions to support their claims and counter opposing viewpoints. However, it is important to note that logical reasoning can be manipulated through the selective use of evidence or the distortion of facts.
Metaphors and analogies are also commonly employed in political discourse to simplify complex ideas and make them more relatable to the general public. By using familiar and easily understandable comparisons, politicians can make their messages more accessible and memorable. For instance, a politician might use the metaphor of a “broken system” to describe the need for political reform, appealing to the public’s desire for change.
- Language as a Tool for Framing
Language is not only used for persuasion but also for framing political issues. Framing refers to the way in which a particular issue or topic is presented and interpreted by the public. Politicians strategically frame their messages to shape public perception and influence the way people think about certain issues. Framing techniques can involve the use of specific language and narratives that highlight certain aspects of an issue while downplaying or omitting others. For example, a politician advocating for stricter immigration policies might frame the issue as a matter of national security, emphasizing the potential risks and dangers associated with immigration. By framing the issue in this way, they can rally support for their stance and justify their proposed policies. Language also plays a crucial role in defining the terms of the debate. Politicians often use carefully chosen words and phrases to shape public discourse and control the narrative surrounding a particular issue. For example, the choice between using the terms “undocumented immigrants” or “illegal aliens” can have a significant impact on how the issue is perceived and discussed. Each term carries different connotations and can evoke different emotional responses from the audience. 13
- Language and Media Influence
The media plays a crucial role in shaping political discourse, and language is a powerful tool in this process. Journalists and media outlets have the ability to frame political issues, set the agenda, and shape public opinion through their choice of language and narrative. Media headlines, for example, can significantly influence how an issue is perceived by the public. The use of sensationalist or biased language can sway public opinion and create a particular narrative around a political event or policy. Additionally, media interviews and debates provide a platform for politicians to communicate their messages and employ persuasive language techniques. In recent years, the rise of social media has further amplified the role of language in political discourse. Platforms like Twitter and Facebook have become battlegrounds for political debates, where politicians and citizens engage in heated discussions using language as their primary weapon. The brevity and immediacy of social media communication have led to the emergence of new linguistic styles and strategies, such as hash-tags, memes, and viral slogans, which can quickly spread and shape public opinion. 14 and 15
- Methodology
The data of the study consist of a speech delivered successively in the first half of 2020 by Iraqi designated prime ministers as a replacement of the Prime Minister Adel Abdul Mehdi who resigned as a consequence of October 2019Uprising. Al-Kadhimi gave his speech on April 9th 2020, and it lasted 7 minutes and 49 seconds. The extracts used in the analysis and cited as examples have been translated from Arabic into English. In analyzing the speech, the paper adopts a mixed research design, i.e., qualitative and quantitative. The analysis is basically qualitative but some quantitative facts are cited to support the qualitative descriptions. The framework of analysis employed in this paper uses tools suggested by van Dijk 16 especially those related to topics, superstructure, syntax, rhetoric and speech acts. These analytical categories are presented below. According to Van Dijk 16, topics are also known as semantic macro-propositions. Political discourse has politics as its core theme, although it usually includes in combination topics from other societal domains. “Political topics will be mainly about political actors (politicians, elites, public figures and social institutions and organizations) and their typical actions, in past, present and especially the future” 17. The analysis of the superstructure is concerned with the overall organization of the discourse. As far as political discourse is concerned, there is considerable variation because each genre may have its ‘own canonical schematic structure’, as is illustrated in parliamentary debates, political speeches, propaganda leaflets or slogans in demonstrations 17. “Some of these categories are obligatory, whereas others are merely conventional or strategic, as in political speeches or propaganda” 17. In terms of syntax, political discourse analysis considers a variety of features and structures such as the use of pronouns, the use of specific syntactic categories such as active and passive constructions and nominalizations. Some political functions such as emphasis or mitigation can be fulfilled through more or less prominent placement of words and phrases. “Syntactic topicalization by fronting a word may draw special attention to such a word” 17. Rhetoric is another tool suggested by van Dijk and will be used in the analysis. It is well-know that rhetorical operations are generally optional. Thus, they are used for persuasive purposes which make them politically significant in a political context of communication. 17
- Discussion
Regarding the topic , the speaker is addressing current problems and challenges of different kinds and promising future actions that he and his government will take to solve or lessen the effect of these problems and challenges. So, the actors are mostly the speaker as a prospective prime minister and his ministerial cabinet; although the identity of the actors is either implicit through the use of nominalization or explicit in which case it takes the form of first person singular or plural. Other actors refer to the people, or other entities which have created the complexities in the Iraqis’ life. The predicates are represented by the actions and events which are promised by the speaker as an essential part of his job as a prime minister. They are also represented by the actions and events related to the people, or other entities. For illustrating this point let’s see this example, (The government pledges to be on the first defensive line to protect the Iraqis from the danger of coronavirus). (Al-Kadhimi’s speech)18. The Superstructure or textual schemata Designation speeches represent a subgenre of political speeches. They bear resemblance to the political speeches in terms of their openings and closings. Whereas the former comprise introductory remarks that prepare the audience for the topic of the speech, the latter consist of concluding remarks that mark the end of the speech. The designation speech under investigation can be then divided into three parts which are the introductory remarks, the core of the speech and the concluding remarks. As for the introductory remarks in the mentioned speech, they seem to be generally similar in terms of content and different in terms of expression. They contain the greeting of the Iraqi people; expressing gratitude to all the relevant participants in the political process. These included politicians, the President for designating the speaker to be the next prime minister, the members of COR, the Religious Institution as well the demonstrators whose uprising caused the resignation of the government and the designation of a prime minister to form a new one. Al-Kadhimi congratulates the people on the anniversary of the mid-Sha’ban (on the Islamic Calendar) a religious Shiʿi celebration and the anniversary of the fall of the Ba’ath’s regime on April 9th 2003. He does so to convey solidarity with the Shiʿi majority of the population and to remind the whole people of the dramatic change they have experienced from dictatorship to democracy.
In the core of the speech, the prime ministers seem to have a consensus on the type of problems he needs to address in the speech and the promises or pledges that should be given to overcome these problems and challenges. Al-Kadhimi puts Coronavirus pandemic at the top of his government agenda. For him the first and most important step is to combat the dangerous threat that the pandemic poses to the people’s health. The other tasks in the agenda are sovereignty, prohibiting weapon uncontrolled use by decisive procedures with the help of security forces including Al-Hashad Sha’bi and Pishmirga, economy and its development with investment and varying the sources of public income, responding to the demands of people in the demonstration squares, protecting the rights of the demonstrators, foreign affairs, fighting corruption and corrupts, returning the displaced to their homes. The concluding remarks in the speech are mainly wishes for success in the job undertaken and calls for support from the politicians and the people.
Concerning the lexicon, The designated prime minister use certain words and expressions to describe the problems and challenges he pledge to address in this governmental program. Al-Kadhimi describes the designation as a national test which indicates it is a very difficult job. He considers fighting corruption and corrupts a national mission, that is, a highly important mission. As for his government he says it will not be an isolated government, or a government of closed rooms and secrets, an implication of transparent government which is close to its people. In talking about sovereignty, he describes it as a red line which means it does not accept any compromise or indulgence. He also says sovereignty will not be a controversial issue which implies that no contrasting views are allowed about it. He considers Iraq a highborn country which indicates Iraq’s long history of existence. He also addresses the problem of uncontrolled weapon which means the weapons used by armed groups; he says the government will work to confine by decisive procedures, which means procedures that are effective and never give the chance to this problem to happen again. The Iraqi economy is described by him as exhausted and job unwieldiness has run down the state, which means that economy needs reforms. He says the Iraqi is not a subordinate, the Iraqi is a decedent of civilizations and his strength comes from his pride of his patriotism which suggests having civilizations and patriotism would never put one in the subordinate position. We are a match to our adversaries, which indicates strength against any aggression and brothers to our neigbours and friends, which means love and kindness
Conclusion
In conclusion, persuasive techniques are vital tools in political discourse, enabling politicians to effectively communicate their ideas, gain public support, and shape public opinion. The use of emotional appeals, ethical appeals, logical appeals, language and framing techniques, nonverbal communication, and audience analysis all contribute to the effectiveness of persuasive techniques. Understanding and analyzing these techniques is crucial for comprehending the strategies employed by prime ministers in Iraq and their impact on political discourse.
Designation speeches represent a subgenre of political speeches which have a well-defined structure and topics. These are normally given at long intervals of about four years. But the ones being investigated in the paper were delivered within a little than two months due to special political circumstances that prevailed Iraqi political scene after the resignation of the government in 2020 following the uprising that started near the end of the previous year
The paper has applied the approach of political discourse analysis and used a framework of analysis which is based mostly on the tools of analysis suggested by Van Dijk 19. The detailed analysis has shown a great deal of similar features regarding the overall organization and the points mentioned in the different parts of the speeches. Differences have been found in terms of the arrangement of some points as well as the ways used in presenting them.
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